AMER. INDIAN ACCULTURATION.   Term Paper ID:7392 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Intensive study of Native Amer. culture; history; oppression; reservations; conflicts of time saving & work; Puritan ethics; clashes of religion & mentality; all in context of ongoing assimilation of Indians.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Intensive study of Native Amer. culture; history; oppression; reservations; conflicts of time saving & work; Puritan ethics; clashes of religion & mentality; all in context of ongoing assimilation of Indians. Paper Introduction: The purpose of this research is to examine American Indian cultural values with respect to how those values affect Indian acculturation and assimilation into the dominant culture of the United States. In the wake of violent confrontations between Indian and the established power structure of the United States--at Alcatraz, at Wounded Knee, at the Bureau of Indian Affairs--Robert Burnette and John Koster wrote: "The American Indian today is a product of history and of the disruptive elements of modern society. Federal policies--from the signing of the Constitution down to the present day--can be said to legislate his every waking action, for good, or, more frequently, for ill." There is little doubt that this is true. During the great period of Westward expansion in the United States, the Indian was viewed by Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. The importance of cultural values and Pan-Indianism to thecontemporary Indian are apparent in studies of the Indian communities ofSan Francisco and Los Angeles. . Vogt, "The Acculturation of American Indians," report inDeward E. There is nothing debasing or morallyreprehensible about the peyote ritual."[xxx] Thus far this paper has focused upon the cultural values of theAmerican Indian. . The concepts of time, saving,and work as evidenced in white society have little meaning in Indiansociety. The Road to Wounded Knee. The American Indian in Urban Society. The Emergent Native Americans. Quarrelling and bullies were unknown among the Indians. Hence the LosAngeles Indians on the average spend a relatively small portion of theirincome on clothes and housing, while relatively large amounts go towardtravel and entertainment."[xliv] Indians in Los Angeles have learned, as other minority groups beforethem learned, to survive in the impersonal atmosphere of the urban setting. Endnotes BibliographyAblon, Joan. Research on the Pan-Indianmovement would not only tell us, as anthropologists, a great deal about thesocial and cultural processes . "The adjustment patterns, recreation behavior, employment, andeducation expectations vary as much for people classified as Indians assimilar expectations vary for the general population moving from nonurbanto urban life."[xxxi] Still, certain reactions, certain traits reflect theIndian experience in a unique fashion while other reactions and traits arecommon to any city-dweller. The Emergent Native Americans. The Anglos were very future oriented and listed multiple events such asbuying a car or a home and getting a raise. Boston: Little, Brown, 1972.Thomas, Robert K. The second part relates to theindividual and his effort to survive when the old cultural values arethreatened. "To a significant degree, educational goalshave been fashioned to conform to the competitive achievement orientationof the American middle class and to the attainment of materialwealth."[lii] As we have seen, American Indians, for the most part, arenot oriented to the achievement of material wealth nor are they oriented tothe attainment of long range goals. Avoid excesses. Sociologists explain that thisis an inheritance of Western European origin. Pan-Indianism is the oldest suchmovement and perhaps could tell us what lies in the future for parts ofAfrica and Asia."[xlix] Thomas advances the hypotheses that Pan-Indianism is a defensemechanism on the part of the Indian and that other such movements havetheir genesis in the same reasoning. Highly important also is the fact that many fundamental Indian values are not only incompatible with those of American culture, but work directly in opposition to the principles on which the modern capitalistic order is based. Formula 1. Boston: Little, Brown, 1971.Poole, D.G. At the same time, there seems to be a relationship--a spiritual kinship tothe Indian heritage of the oneness with nature--that may be unique to anIndian philosophy. Boston: Little, Brown 1972.Vogt, Evon Z. "Native American Church and the Law." In Walker, Jr., Deward E. The Indian: Assimilation, Integration or Separation? Premise 7. The American Indian in Urban Society. Athletic leagues, Christian churches, andother institutions Euro-American in character are focusing on their Indianmembership and identity with such activities as social centers, annualfairs and yearly Christmas parties. The puritan work ethic too is deeply ingrained on American society.Work is good. Ablon found traces of Indian cultural values in theorganization and planning of the various groups. Because of the useof peyote, the Native American Church has faced numerous legal battles.One legal decision, in Arizona, describes both the ritual of the peyote andthe tenets of the Native American Church. Thus, tosucceed and survive as an individual, the Indian must become more Indianthan white. New York: Harper & Row, 1965.Spicer, Edward H. This is as it should be. "The things essential to life in those early times, like airto most of us today, had no economic value and therefore there was no needto act in terms of saving for this purpose."[xiii] The dominant Americansociety is built upon the principle of saving for the future. Indefining his position, Newell outlines many of the important culturaltraits of American Indian which have been passed down through thegenerations. Thus, this paper will focus upon the cultural values of the AmericanIndian which affect their acculturation and assimilation. The traditional Navajo view of the world as a dangerous place canonly be compounded in a modern American urban setting. . There is a greater significance to the Pan-Indian movement as well.Thomas writes: "Pan-Indianism is the creator of a new identity, a newethnic group, if you will, a new 'nationality' in America. The first part is the effort of the tribalgroup to survive and maintain an identity. . Newell, "Some Aspects of the Indian Culture," reportin Richard P. We're part of nature, like treeshave roots that have to grow from soil and be nourished.[xxxiii] We haveroots in each other and grow and are nourished. Psychological factors come under consideration as an outgrowth ofeducation and employment opportunities but also because the Indian whomoves from the reservation to an urban setting loses touch with thefamiliar and the traditional values which governed behavior and provided anidentity. Traditionally, "theIndian, in his societies those thousands of years when he was fashioninghis way of life, found he could have all that he required in the way offood, clothing, and shelter by living in harmony with nature. Later, the Pan-Indian religion--the NativeAmerican Church--grew from the Ghost Dance and the Peyote movement. Thus, the American Indian in contemporary America is caught in a kindof anthropological "Catch-22." On the one hand, the Indian's culturalvalues and heritage are alien to the attributes considered necessary forAmericans; on the other hand, the Indian's ability to achieve thoseattributes--and thus acculturation and assimilation into the dominantsociety--are retarded by the same cultural values and heritage. Even when tribal peoples desire to beincorporated into an industrial civilization, they are unwilling to breakup as social groups, and therefore try to come to some kind of compromise,such as partial incorporation while retaining the solidarity of 5 thesocial group."[l] Thomas's hypotheses seems particularly pertinent to the Pan-Indianmovement. In his study of pan-Indianism, Robert K. There has now been the realization that this is simply notthe case. But other minority groups, after ageneration or perhaps two have been absorbed by the dominant culture of theUnited States, leaving behind only isolated traces of their heritage andtraditions. Of late much has been written about the adjustment problemsexperienced by Indians who move from the reservation to an urban settingsuch as Chicago, Denver, or Los Angeles. The Native Americans. The American Indian in Urban Society. More and more, as the American Indian proceeds through theprocesses of acculturation and assimilation, the old cultural values willbe broken. The Sun Dance was an important religious occasion for otherIndian tribes. "Life in the City: Chicago." In Waddell, Jack O. They would rather share money or material goods than budget or save. Historically, it is an old movement which can traceits roots to the nineteenth century and even before. "Indianstend to retain the attitude that one should not spend much on clothes orhousing. The Teon and the Ogala "came together at one time duringthe year for a deeply emotional religious experience . They will not often speak out to complain or demand their rights. For the purposes of this paper acculturation is "a broad processdefined as change in formerly autonomous cultures that come intocontact."[iii] Assimilation is a more specific process consisting of"structural and organizational absorption of formerly autonomousinstitutions or members of one society by another."[iv] It must beremembered that there can be substantial assimilation without anaccompanying marked acculturation. Price, "The Migration and Adaptation of American Indiansto Los Angeles," report in Deward E. When in a new and dangerous situation, do nothing, or Formula 5. Walker Jr., The Emergent Native Americans (Boston:Little, Brown, 1972), 391.Ibid.Merwyn S. Formula 2. These factors are: educational background employment opportunities,and psychological stability.[li] Certainly these same factors apply to non-Indians in American society as well but because of the complexities of theIndians culture and background there may be additional factors at work. The Indian: Assimilation, Integration or Separation? Stewart, "Native American Church and the Law," report inDeward E. We have seen how tribal affiliationsin an urban setting are replaced by a greater allegiance to pan-Indianismsimply out of necessity. . . Tradition-oriented dance clubsflourish."[xlii] As was the case with Ablon's study of Indians living in the SanFrancisco Bay Area, Price found that the Indian population of Los Angelestended to continue to relate to Indians rather than whites in the urbansetting. (Scarborough, ON: Prentice-Hall ofCanada, Ltd., 1972), 174.Ibid., 175.Ibid.Ibid.Ibid.Ibid.D. Renewal of kinties, the arranging of marriages, exchange of property, recitation of pastyears deeds and exploits, political maneuvering, and all of the otherassociated activities were secondary to the central group ritual."[xxvi]The Natchez sought to control supernatural events through theirshamans.[xxvii] The Creek participated in elaborate rituals and ceremoniesthat concerned the cycle of the natural universe and the supernaturaluniverse.[xxviii] There are common religious elements among American Indian tribes,enough so that a Native American Church could come into being early in thetwentieth century. In the wake of violent confrontations between Indian and theestablished power structure of the United States--at Alcatraz, at WoundedKnee, at the Bureau of Indian Affairs--Robert Burnette and John Kosterwrote: "The American Indian today is a product of history and of thedisruptive elements of modern society. 2 3-2 4.Joan Ablon, "Relocated American Indians in the San Francisco BayArea," report in Deward E. Abroad, there have been Pan-African movements which are similar in intent to the Pan-Indian movement. Conversely, if the family unit is disrupted through divorce,drinking, or illness, the family is affected and severe adjustment problemsmay occur.[xxxii] But, despite the level of education, employment, decenthousing, and other similar factors, there remains a sense of "Indianness"among some urban Indians. Federal policies--from the signingof the Constitution down to the present day--can be said to legislate hisevery waking action, for good, or, more frequently, for ill."[i] There islittle doubt that this is true. Thesemovements were spread in part by the boarding schools such asCarlisle.[xlviii] But events of the twentieth century, the decade of the 196 's inparticular, have also contributed to the growth of Pan-Indianism. "The Urban Indian as Worker." In Waddell, Jack O. Olson, " The Urban Indian as Viewed by an IndianCaseworker," report in Jack O. However, the cultural values still affect the rate ofassimilation. The most important of these is a basic antagonism to white society that has developed from a history of rejection and discrimination. Vogt writes: "By the mid-twentieth century it has become apparentto social scientists studying the American Indian that the Indianpopulation of the United States is markedly increasing and that the rate ofbasic acculturation to white American ways of life is incredibly slowerthan our earlier assumptions led us to believe."[vi] Writing of theIndians of the American Southwest, Edward H. The poorly educatedperson must compete with others who have higher qualifications. I wouldlike to have someone important to me and know I am important too. The essential purpose was not that of self-improvement, but rather that of improving one's position in society... This life is what counts.[xxiii] Many aspects of this philosophy are found in the philosophies ofother tribes from coast to coast and north to south in the United States. Walker, Jr. Poole, "Comparison Between White and Indian Cultures,report in Richard P. Bowles, et al., The Indian: Assimilation,Integration or Separation? "Modern industrial civilization,through the vehicle of the bureaucratic nation-state and its institutions,demands not only the incorporation of tribal peoples but immediateincorporation and individual assimilation. As Thomas' hypotheses suggests, the individual, whenconfronted by external pressures of the sort that the Indian has facedsince the first appearance of the white man in America, faces an extremeidentity crisis in two parts. Some of the reasonsfor the slow rate of Indian assimilation can be found in the traditionalcultural values of the Indian. "They deplore anauthoritative manner and strongly disapprove of aggressiveleadership."[xxv] Traditional Zuni religion emphasizes a oneness with theuniverse. I wouldlike to know that we are a part of nature, of the natural order, that timemay pass, but there is always us . The first argument is that theisolation of Indians on remote reservations has meant that the Indianremained isolated from the means of assimilation --education,communications, and similar institutions. Boston: Little, Brown, 1972.Burnette, Robert and John Koster. Thomas, "Pan-Indianism," report in Deward E. The deeplyingrained cultural values of the American Indian, sustained over centuriesof discrimination, persecution, and attempts at extermination, mustnaturally give the American Indian great cause for concern during a verytrying period. The purpose of this research is to examine American Indian culturalvalues with respect to how those values affect Indian acculturation andassimilation into the dominant culture of the United States. The range of variation is extensive."[xxxiv] The move fromtribalism to Pan-Indianism still retains the cultural values of thetraditional society in many respects but those values are now focused on atotal Indian society rather than members of smaller tribes such as Navajoor Sioux or Apache. "The Navajo conceive of the universe as a dangerous place, sinceit is an all inclusive entity, containing both good and evil. "Two factsshow how far apart the experience of the Indian has set him: only theIndian, of all Americans, has ever been subjected to a conscious and statedpolicy of genocide by the United States government; and only the Indian, ofall Americans, has been denied freedom of religion and suffered relentlesspersecution at the hands of the government or with their enthusiasticapproval."[ii] Certainly other ethnic minority groups have met with prejudice anddiscrimination in' the United States. "Some Aspects of the Indian Culture." In Richard P. "Habituation tohard work, including drudgery over a period of years, if necessary to earna living, was not in the Indian system . The twentiethcentury seems to be the century for pan-tribal movements all over the world--in the New World, Asia, Australia, and Africa. With the cultural heritage of American Indians persistingthrough the centuries of persecution and displacement from their ancestrallands, the American Indian had to develop defenses in order to survive as atribal unit. "When thus consumed,it causes the worshiper to experience a vivid revelation in which he seesor hears the spirit of a departed loved one, or experiences other religiousphenomenon; or he may be shown the way to solve some daily problems, orreproved for some evil thought or deed. But it is evident that thosecultural values such as harmony with nature, concepts of time, saving, andwork, family loyalty and kinship, communal orientation, and the variousaspects of religion common to many American Indian tribes have led to areluctance on the part of Indians to accept the dominant culture. As youngerIndians move from the reservations to seek greater opportunities apart fromtheir relatives and traditions, the tribal values will break down andperhaps vanish. Life is very, very dangerous. . A tribalgroup can not tolerate such an attack. The American Indian in Urban Society. Let us examine the experience of the modern American Indianin his contact with the dominant white society and see how Indian culturalvalues conflict with that contact. New York: Bantam Books, 1974.Garbarino, Merwyn S. The Emergent Native Americans. . The acculturation and assimilation process mayyet continue for more decades although it seems unlikely. SirWilliam Johnson, a British Indian Agent is cited: "They are only beginningto deceive in their transactions with us." In another Johnson document, hestates that he has tried to make an Indian steal but failed in hisattempt.[xix] "Women received the honor and respect that no other peoplegave their women."[xx] The Indian learned cruelty from the white man(including scalping) and the Indian had a strong sense of equality, sharingtheir food equally, and their sense of responsibility and brotherhoodextended even to the white man until experience taught the Indianotherwise.[xxi] In opposition, "white culture was nationalistically rather thancommunally oriented; capitalistic rather than communistic (in the non-political sense of the word); individualistic rather than tribal in thematerial and social sense . The personality is a whole. But the Pan-Indian movement will ensure that Indian valuesremain, if not intact--at least recognizable. "Comparison Between White and Indian Cultures." In Bowles, Richard P. Successive waves of immigrants--Irish, German, Italian, Puerto Rican--have suffered the dual pangs ofacculturation and assimilation. It is the attemptto create a new ethnic group, the American Indian; it is also a vitalsocial movement which is forever changing and growing."[xlvii] It is not unusual for such a Pan-Indian movement to grow and developin the United States. The converse is also true. Respect the integrity of the individual. and O. "...subjects from both the Navajo and Anglosamples were asked to look ahead for a minute and tell the interviewer fivethings they would do or things they felt might happen to them in the future... Like produces like and the part stands for the whole. "Navajo Urban Migration." In Jack O. Dr. Ben Neiful, in an article for Indian Education, compared somevalues of Indian culture with those of white society. Thus, the importance of the Indian cultural values--as often provided by the Pan-Indian movement--becomes a crucial factor."Whereas other people may define themselves in terms of profession,socioeconomic class, or school or club affiliation, the newly urbanizedIndian develops a concept of self around the idea of cultural heritage, andthat cultural heritage gives him roots and a sense of belonging."[lv] Thus, the American Indian comes full circle in his attempts to copewith the white dominated American society. "Paths to Civilization." In Walker, Jr., Deward E. A fourth hypothesis emphasizes theimportance of an organized communal structure.[viii] Spicer, on the other hand, is not remarkably surprised by the slowrate of assimilation. A third argument isthat while material aspects of a culture change readily enough, family andkinship patterns are more persistent. There is an additional factor that must be considered in anyexamination of the Indian in a contemporary American urban setting."Within the matrix of city life there seems to be a detribalizationresulting in a general identity as Indian, rather than tribal member, butthis detribalization is also influenced by and reflects class structure ...Retention of a strong component if Indianness may be the result of a realpride in heritage, but it may also be a kind of defensive behavior orrefuge. However, time will reveal that the Indian willgradually assimilate more and more into the dominant society. Removed fromthe reservation, placed into the situation of living in a society wherethey were unique, made many Indians seek out Indian groups, dance "Indianfor the first time, and take an active interest for the first time inIndian political activities and problems. 1971),353-354.Robert F. . Bowles, et al. Thomas provided a usefuldefinition: "One can legitimately define Pan-Indianism as the expression ofa new identity--and the institutions and symbols which are both anexpression of that new identity and a fostering of it. The psychological awareness of Indian identity was ever present and seemed to vary little in relation to intermarriage, profession, or diverse social preferences.[xli] John A. It is equally apparentthat the assimilation process is taking place and with increasing numbersof Indians loving to urban areas that the rate of assimilation will beaccelerated. In a study of Navajos in the urban setting ofDenver, Robert S. Formula 4. Americanchildren are taught very early that they must work hard, go to college,succeed in life. Michael Watson, The American Indian inUrban Society (Boston: Little, Brown 1971), 268.William B. Identity is a major cause of concern for most ethnic groups who areundergoing the process of acculturation and assimilation. A second argument, advanced byDozier, claims that forced acculturation leads to a high degree ofresistance to change in indigenous cultural patterns. Premise 9. Indian society isoriented to the present. But this was not a part of Indianculture. "Time, Saving, Work." In Richard P. Formula 3. Through the use of peyote, theIndian acquires increased powers of concentration and introspection, andexperiences deep religious emotion. Such basic qualities of Indianness--as Indian identity and continuing belief in early teachings and values--are strongly resistant to change, despite efforts of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the dominant white society to effect fundamental changes during the process of adjustment. Bowles, et al., The Indian: Assimilation,Integration or Separation? In the economically simple life of the old Indiansystem there was never any need to coordinate the efforts of the groupexcept in some general way around the natural objects, such as the sun,moon, and seasons."[xii] The concept of time remains important today whenIndians deal with the society outside their own. Michael Watson. However, their reasons for the slow rate of change vary.Evon Z. Deprived of theirland, shunted off to isolated reservations where the land was of poorquality for agriculture or anything else, the Indian was persecuted anddeprived throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. "In spite of the concentrated efforts and close proximity ofEuropean peoples in their endeavor to force upon the American Indian theirculture the result has been a failure to a very large extent. Other aspects ofIndian cultural values manifest themselves in the Indian community of theBay Area. A basic tribal world view defining the interrelationships of man with his society and the world around him, and the paternalistic nature of Bureau administration of Indian community affairs have helped produce complex and deeply entrenched attitudes of dependency which greatly hinder adjustment to the practical demands of urban life.[xxxvii] Thus, the continuing influence of the traditional life of thereservation community is present in the urban setting. Industrial civilizationindividuates and attacks the solidarity of the social group. It is not an impossible task for the Indian butbecause of the strength of the Indian's cultural values and heritage, thetask is more difficult. The EmergentNative Americans (Boston: Little, Brown, 1972), 728.Ibid., 733.Ibid., 734.Ibid., 737.Ibid., 738.Robert K. The Navajo finds the basis of his beliefs in the traditionalreligion. Maintain orderliness in those sectors which are little subject to human control. Michael Watson, The American Indian inUrban Society (Boston: Little, Brown, 1971), 171-172.Ibid., 2 2.Ibid., 2 .Ibid. Duringinterviews it was found that Navajos had a very nebulous future orientationin comparison with Anglos. The Pan-Indian movement affords the American Indian an identity as a culturalentity although that identity in no longer entirely related to the tribalgroup. Scarborough, ON: Prentice-Hall of Canada, Ltd., 1972.Newell, William B. The doctrine consists of belief in God,brotherly love, care of family and other worthy beliefs. It isconceived of as a sacrament, a means of communion with the Spirit of theAlmighty--and as an object of worship, itself, as having been provided forthe Indian by the Almighty."[xxix] Again, we see the common elements ofIndian cultural values--the importance of brotherly love, the closeness ofthe family and its value to the Indian, and the belief in God. On the other hand, the Navajosin many cases could list only one event and they were very simpleoccurrences.[xv] William B. Waddell and . "The speed of assimilation of American Indians hasnot been measured by any careful comparisons with other situations in whichthe contact conditions were similar. "Relocated American Indians in the San Francisco Bay Area." In Walker, Jr., Deward E. As civilization and industry encroached more and more uponthe Indian, tribal groups were hard put to retain their identity. Neifel isolates three concepts of Indian culture that are in directconflict with the dominant white society. In the course of my study in the Bay Area I did not encounter any persons I could consider to be assimilated. The cultural values of the Indian which work against theattainment of the successful middle class American education thereforecarry over into the Indian's search for employment. Everything exists in two parts, the male and the female, which belong together and complete each other. Bowles,et al., The Indian: Assimilation, Integration or Separation?(Scarborough, ON: Prentice-Hall of Canada, Ltd., 1972), 17 .Ibid., 17 -171.Ibid., 171.Ibid.Robert S. Anydisturbance of the universal harmony, causing and imbalance in the cosmos,results in evil and danger, and must be ritualistically corrected."[xxiv]Thus, we see the traditional religion carrying over into modern Navajolife. Boston: Little, Brown, 1972.Walker, Deward E. Thus,often times, the Indian search for employment is reduced to seeking out theunskilled or semi-skilled employment opportunities where the pay is longerand the employee,is more subject to the vagaries of the economy--lay-offs,strikes, recessions and the like. "Time, in the sense of measuring duration by clocks and days-of-the-week calendars as we do, is not important in the Indian way of life.In our economic and other social relationships it becomes essential toschedule most of our activities in accordance with a commonly acceptedsystem of timing ... Price found similar patterns of Indian behavior in LosAngeles with an accompanying trend toward assimilation and acculturation.In Los Angeles, which has the largest urban population of Indians in theUnited States, "the Indians are actively creating a pan-Indian subculturewhich accommodates their aboriginal history and reservation culture to thenewer world of urban living. There is pride in work. For the Indian, on the other hand, success is notnecessarily a college education, a home in suburban America, and all theother material trappings that mark success in the dominant culture.Certainly, there are changing attitudes among the younger generations ofAmerican Indians, but change has been a long time in coming. Los Angeles Indians "have found in social enclaves a security against theimpersonality of the city, and a new and wider identity in pan-Indianassociations."[xlv] The pan-Indian associations, in place of the oldertribal associations, afford the Indian a wider perspective and althoughonly one-fifth of Price's respondents were actively affiliatedwith a pan-Indian organization, the great majority were ideologically andemotionally affiliated with pan-Indianism.[xlvi] Because of the ideological importance of pan-Indianism in the processof acculturation and assimilation, it is necessary to understand theimplications of the pan-Indian movement in order to understand the growingIndian involvement with the movement. As the Civil Rights movementof the 196 's spread into a black power movement and the attendant concernwith heritage, tradition, and identity as a black person, so the Pan-Indianmovement serves to awaken the same instincts in American Indians. "Pan-Indianism." In Walker, Jr., Deward E. "Urban Economic Opportunities." In Waddell, Jack. The genesis of those cultural values is found in thetraditional history, religion, and society. "The Migration and Adaptation of American Indians to Los Angeles." In Walker, Jr., Deward E., The Emergent Native Americans. Weppner found that a lack of future orientationcontributed to a lack of success in the urban environment. There arebanks, pensions, insurance plans. A single dissenting votedefeated any proposal.[xviii] Of Indian character, Newell points out that Indians were gentle andkind, cared for their old people, and had a strong sense of family loyaltyand kinship. Nor has the conflict betweenIndian values and white values been tempered by time. As might be expected, household stability, astrong family head, and regular income alleviate adjustment problems forthe Indian. American Indians perforce have had their traditional cultures decimated in one way or another, and have been drawn often unwillingly into the mainstream of American life. Boston: Little, Brown, 1972.Weppner, Robert S. . Human nature is neither good nor evil--both qualities are blended in all persons from birth on. Women did the tasks of drudgery which freed the men for the moreimportant task of hunting and the protection of the group. The acculturation and assimilation process has been continuing forcenturies for the American Indian. The Emergent Native Americans. Other minority groups, other ethnic groups have been able to succeedin American society and life without giving up their cultural background,values, and identity. Ablon found that friendships between Indians and whites were moreoften on a superficial basis and could be better classed asacquaintances.[xxxix] Indeed, for many Indians, their relocation to theBay Area resulted in a first awareness of their Indianness. There are a number of Indian groups and social organizationsactive in the area. Spicer, "Paths to Civilization," report in Deward E.Walker Jr., The Emergent Native Americans (Boston: Little,Brown, 1972), 97.Ibid., 93-94,Ibid., 99.Ibid.Ben Neiful, "Time, Saving, Work," report in Richard P. The peculiarity of the position of American Indians as an ethnic group stems from a number of facts which are crucial to their potential adjustment in white urban life. Olson found that three major factors contributed to theIndian's success or failure in adapting to contemporary urban Americanlife. Bowles, et al. Boston: Little, Brown, 1972.Spencer, Robert F., et al. During the great period of Westwardexpansion in the United States, the Indian was viewed by the settlers--thewhite man--as a barbaric force to be exterminated, often with the approvaland the aid of the Federal government. Weppner, "Urban Economic Opportunities," report inJack O. The cultural values of the AmericanIndian have resisted much of that process rather successfully over thedecades and the centuries. Michael Watson. Thatexpression is found in pan-Indianism. But those cultural values must be replaced by other values.Since many of the cultural values of the American Indian are in directconflict and opposition to the cultural values of the dominant whitesociety, the values of the Pan-Indian movement seem to be the values thatwill sustain the American Indian and provide a cultural identity in thewasteland and loneliness of urban America. Be wary of nonrelatives. "The Acculturation of American Indians." In Walker, Jr., Deward E. Los Angeles has a variety of organizations and social groups forIndians residing in the metropolitan area--kinship, tribal, and pan-Indianclubs or centers.[xliii] In addition, Price found that Indians tend toretain their attitudes concerning certain aspects of daily life. What is said is to be taken literally. It is an alien concept in Indian culture and"pressures in school to compete for grades or rank merely result in stress,tensions, or passivity."[liii] Naturally enough, employment opportunities in modern America dependupon to a large extent the educational background and qualifications of theindividual. . This Indian male feels theinsecurity and alienation that many Americans feel in modern urban society. Resistance to assimilation can be readily found two areas.The historical tradition of animosity by the white toward the Indian hasnot been erased in contemporary society. Waddell and Michael Watson, TheAmerican Indian in Urban Society (Boston: Little, Brown. Thedominant society is frantically engaged in "becoming" something. William H. Walker, Jr., The Emergent Native Americans (Boston:Little, Brown, 1972), 1.Ibid.Ibid.Evon Z. One Indian living in Chicago described hisfeelings thusly: "Maybe I would be alone or feel lonely anywhere. Premise 8. Waddell and O. This isagain emphasized by the fact that today over half of the six thousandIroquois Indians living in the thickly populated state of New York stillretain their ancient religious concepts and 16 beliefs."[xvi] Citing early records of Jesuit priests and colonialists, NewellIndian leaders "were elected on the basis of their merit, because of theirhonesty and integrity, and that they were usually the poorest men in thenation, never keeping anything for themselves, but distributing allannuities and monies equally among the people."[xvii] In addition,dictators were unknown among the Iroquois and the government had a centralseat where unanimous decisions were rendered. Premise 4. Hodge, for instance, cited ClydeKluckhohn's "premises of Navajo life and thought" as a key to understandingthe Navajo's behavior. Spencer, et al., The Native Americans (New York:Harper and Row, 1965), 332.Ibid., 318.Ibid., 381.Ibid., 416.Ibid., 432.Omer C. It is, furthermore, doubtful if theindividual tribal person could survive as a personality under theseconditions. i@,eyounger generations of the various Indian tribes who have migrated toAmerican urban areas can not but help to have been influenced by recentevents, both in the United States and abroad. Removed from the reservation and family andtribal contacts, the Indian seeks expression for his Indianness. Time willalso reveal whether or not this is a could thing or whether assimilationshould have been reversed. Escape. The Indian: Assimilation, Integration or Separation? Indeed,it is rather surprising that Pan-Indianism has not become a greater forcein American society when one considers the adamant resistance of the Indianto assimilation by the dominant white culture. Michael Watson,The American Indian in Urban Society (Boston: Little, Brown,1971), 4 .Ibid., 4 1.Ibid.Ibid., 4 4.Ibid.----------------------- 32 Hence, it remains meaningless tospeak of cultural assimilation in the Southwest as rapid or slow."[ix]Spicer cites other periods of conquest such as the Romanization of westernEuropean tribes, the spread of Arab civilization, the Hinduization oftribes in southern Asia, and the Europeanization of Africa, all of whichcontinued for long periods of time from 4 years to 2 years.[x] Whatever the reason advanced for the slow rate of assimilation, itremains that the American Indian has retained an individual and culturalidentity that has resisted change throughout the 4 years of contact sincethe first European explorers landed in the new world. Scarborough, ON: Prentice Hall of Canada, Ltd., 1972.Olson, John W. Joan Ablon's study of Indians in the San Francisco Bay Area focuseson the "nature of the new relationships that are conceived and maintainedby persons coming from kin-oriented, relatively closed communities to largemetropolitan centers."[xxxv] Ablon writes that"American Indians bring tothe city a diversity of tribal and acculturative backgrounds, but a commonheritage of participation in small rural folk communities with a basis ofaboriginal tradition, and a dependent relationship with the white world assymbolized by their long and often painful association with the Bureau ofIndian Affairs. Waddell and O. The Emergent Native Americans. Premise 3. Everything is future oriented in thedominant culture but the Indian traditionally has no reference to suchorientation. Boston: Little, Brown, 1972.Stewart, Omer C. Premise 2. "The peyote rite is one ofprayer and quiet contemplation. The slowrate of assimilation--if it is a slow rate--can be attributed to thecultural values of American Indians being in a direct opposition to thecultural values of the dominant American society. Premise 5. But the ideaof material wealth and success is alien to the Indian culture. The Emergent Native Americans. Michael Watson. G. Nature is more powerful than man. Certainly, the historical aspects of the treatment of Indiansat the hands of the cultural majority has had a great affect on the rate ofacculturation and assimilation of the American Indian. On the reservation a few work clothes and a single set of dressclothes are sufficient; housing is of course inexpensive. White society is future oriented. Walker,Jr., The Emergent Native Americans (Boston: Little, Brown,1972), 739.Ibid., 741-742.Ibid., 745-746.Ibid., 745-746.John W. "Characteristic of theoperation of the groups are a lack of authoritarian leadership, a generalpractice of group participation in planning, and a frequent absence ofconcrete pre-event duty assignment (with much complaining afterward aboutthe resulting confusion."[xxxviii] Most Indians in the Bay Area were found to prefer to associate withother Indians although many Indians stated that they had white friends aswell. The Native American Church has drawnfrom Christianity as well as the traditional religions. Boston: Little, Brown, 1971.Hodge, William H. The Arizona legal decision described the use ofpeyote in the ritual of the Native American Church. The first reaction of tribes under this kind of stress is thebanding together of tribal groups and a widening and bolstering of this newidentity, in self-defense. Newell takes the position that the Indian culture has beenmore readily assimilated by the white society than the reverse. Naturally, thehistorical background of the Indian can not be ignored but an emphasis willbe placed upon modern factors that affect Indian acculturation andassimilation. and O. Boston: Little, Brown, 1971.-----------------------Robert Burnette and John Koster, The Road to Wounded Knee (NewYork: Bantam Books, 1974), 19.Ibid.Deward E. For example, the education of the American Indian and the curriculumin which the American Indian studies have been molded on the lines designedby the dominant white society. (Scarborough, ON: Prentice-Hall ofCanada, Ltd., 1972), 18 .Clyde Kluckhohn cited in William H. Spicer says: "The spread ofreligious ideas, of forms of government, of language, of tools andtechniques, and of other elements of culture from the peoples of Westerncultural backgrounds to the Indians of the Southwest has appeared to mostnon-Indian observers as unexpectedly slow."[vii] Vogt summarizes the common hypotheses for the slow rate ofassimilation among the American Indian. Itis evident that the essential sense of the meaning or purpose of life, theIndian and White cultures were not merely divergent, they were thoroughlyopposed."[xxii] While there were differing practices and cultural traits among thehundreds of different tribes in the United States, there were still enoughcommon bonds between them to speak of the Indian as a totality rather thansmaller units such as tribes. Yet, following allthe turmoil of the civil rights movements of the 196 's and early 197 's,when Blacks made great advances, the processes of acculturation andassimilation continue to proceed slowly for the American Indian. This meantthat the essence of life was found in being and not in becoming somethingwe are not today."[xi] This concept, as it persists today in Indiansocieties, is in direct conflict with the values of white society. The American Indian was defeated inbattle and in the peace that followed those battles. Waddell and O. The use andsignificance of peyote within the religious framework is complex. Walker, Jr., The Emergent Native Americans (Boston:Little, Brown, 1972), 87.Edward H. During the eighteenthcentury Eastern tribal chiefs perceived the commonality of Indians inopposition to the white society which encroached upon their territories.The movement led by Tecumseh in the early part of the nineteenth centurywas also Pan-Indian in its approach to the problems caused by the Westwardexpansion of the whites. Hodge, "Navajo UrbanMigration," report in Jack O. Often, reports were written aboutcommon problems as though each Indian experienced the same problems for thesame reasons. The Native American Church did not bring all Indianstogether in one religion and the Native American Church bases itssacraments on the use of peyote but the traditional elements of Indianreligion are found in its tenets. Premise 6. Scarborough, ON: Prentice-Hall in Canada, Ltd., 1972.Price, John A. Michael Watson. Nor was there any need for the Indian to be concerned with saving forthe future. The reservations they leave are economicallyunderdeveloped areas, but constitute communities which have provided somedegree of security and social control for the individual, and have acted asbuffers against the immediate encroachments of white culture."[xxxvi] The relatively common background of American Indians is crucial to anunderstanding of the problems faced by the Indians in the process ofassimilation. There canbe acculturation without extensive assimilation.[v] Most anthropologists agree that there is a slow rate of acculturationand assimilation by the American Indian to the dominant culture of theUnited States. Waddell and O. To survive and succeed in theUnited States, the Indian must become more white than Indian. The forefathers ofimmigrants to this country from Europe were taught to work.[xiv] Thus, there developed an important aspect of Indian culture which isstill crucial today for an understanding of the Indian and his failure torapidly assimilate. "When Indians are together on a reservation or in a small townclose to many friends and kinfolk, they may have a number of conflicts, butthey rarely have problems of personal identity; their images ofself are usually accurate in the sense that they have only to look at thefriends and kinfolk and see models for behavior."[liv] The Indian in theurban setting develops psychological problems when he loses his sense ofidentity as an Indian. John W. The NativeAmerican Church has preserved those elements of the tradition which haveresisted assimilation. Boston: Little, Brown, 1971.Neiful, Ben. Indians generally do not want to compete with others. Among the Zuni, qualities of individualism are held in low esteem anda high value is placed upon inoffensiveness and sobriety. Walker, Jr., The Emergent NativeAmericans (Boston: Little, Brown, 1971), 712.Ibid., 713.Ibid.Ibid., 719.Ibid., 722-723.Ibid., 726-727.Ibid., 726.John A. In this situation, the American Indiansimply does not have the orientation necessary to compete for grades andscholastic success. There is an emerging sense ofidentity and awareness of being an Indian and an emerging sense of thesocial and psychological imperatives of Indian identity.[xl]Ablon concludes: The adjustments most Indians make in learning the cues for living successfully in the white world seem to be superficial to their established basic personality structures. Jr. Garbarino, "Life in the City: Chicago," report inJack O. "The traditional Navajo view of life can bedescribed in terms of premises, the first of which is subdivided into anumber of formulas: Premise 1. 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