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Paper Abstract: Unique roles and challenges Nigerian women face. Description of Nigeria. Its British Colonial history. Its male-dominated society. Inequality of women. Greater discrimination of Nigerian women than most Third World nations. Women's gender roles in pre-Colonial society. Islamic influence. Female Circumcision. Prostitution. Some female protest. Paper Introduction: This paper examines the situation of women in Nigeria. This sub-Saharan African nation was amalgamated by the British in the early 20th century from a collection of separate kingdoms, freed in 1960, and has since had a generally repressive, politically contentious history. Nigeria’s women in some ways typify the roles and challenges faced by most Third World women, but their story is complex and unique. Stephen Wright (1998) reports, “Nigeria is Africa’s most populous country and, economically, one of the continent’s strongest” (p. 1). With an estimated population of 110 million, the Federal Republic of Nigeria is the tenth most populous country in the world, and the fifth largest oil supplier to the U.S. market (Maier, 2000, p. xx). In terms of land mass, it is a medium-sized African nation, situated above the Equator along the southwestern bulge of the upper part of the continent, with a substantial coastline, a good share of tropical rainforests, and extending up toward the lower reaches of the Sahara Desert. The largest city, Lagos, sits on the Gulf of Guinea, close to the border of Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. (2 ). 2 7). . This sub-Saharan African nation was amalgamated by the British in the early 2 thcentury from a collection of separate kingdoms, freed in 196 , and hassince had a generally repressive, politically contentious history.Nigeria's women in some ways typify the roles and challenges faced by mostThird World women, but their story is complex and unique. This paper examines the situation of women in Nigeria. Fifty-two women were gunned down forchallenging the colonial government. The country is surrounded by nations that were all former colonies ofFrance, "a circumstance that has led to an interesting mix of problemsrelating to culture, economy, language, and security" (Wright, 1998, p. After independence,women's enrollment in schools rose again, but the complexities of economicinstability and cultural expectations still worked to keep schools frompreparing women for jobs and roles that were likely to advance theirposition in society. 186). Nigerian women, as in the case of most Third World nations, do suffermuch more discrimination than women in developed countries. Not all of the efforts by women have been motivated by the bestinterests of the populace, either. Lee and Marlaine E. 1). Smith, D. The women who brought two oil companies to thebargaining table are a force to be reckoned with indeed. The British invaders included a substantial number of missionaries,seeking to convert the heathen masses to Christianity. The tradition of select but memorable protests led by Nigerian womencontinues to the present day. Thecompany agreed to employ more local people, invest in electricity supplyand other infrastructure projects, and assist the villagers in setting uppoultry and fish farms to supply the terminal's cafeteria (Peel, 2 2,August 12, p. Being female in Nigeria, as inmost Third World countries, means being a second-class citizen at best,though some individuals have managed to rise above the system and claim ameasure of equality, and efforts continue to help the rest of thepopulation gain the equality they deserve. Husbands in rural areas routinelybeat their wives without any legal intervention. Wright, S. xx). The northern kingdom of Kanem-Borno was one of the first kingdomsto convert to Islam, perhaps as early as the 11th century (Falola, 1999, p.28). African Studies Quarterly 6, (3).http://web.africa.ufl.edu/asq/v6/v6i3a2.htm. To a large extent,they succeeded; more than a third of the current population is Christian.Yet the predominant religion when the colonials arrived was not animist butIslam. (1997). Local womensent folded fresh palm leaves to neighboring communities to begin attacksagainst official buildings. She rose to become lyalode, chief of all women in Abeokuta, in1864 (Falola, 1999, p. Prostitution is encouraged by economic, social, and culturalfactors, including the comparatively large amount of money girls can makeby selling their bodies instead of working on the farms. Women suffered a great deal of indignation in spite of their enormous contribution to labor and the general economy of Nigeria (p. O. A senior daughter had morepower to make family decisions than did a junior brother, and, while thisbalance of power was not echoed outside the family unit, it neverthelesshad an impact on the way in which women were viewed in the larger society. 245). A. S. Overall, . 58). Anwar Hekmat (1997) argues, "Millions ofMuslim females, under rigid and inexorable Islamic laws, have been deprivedof their fundamental inalienable rights and driven into seclusion for manycenturies" (p. socialization and culture have kept women subservient in Nigerian society (p. The women,ranging in age from 3 to 9 , finally threatened to take their clothes offif their demands were not met. The protest resulted in the Alake's deportation andwas followed by considerable local reforms. 5). The issue of women's education illustrates some of the complicationsinvolved. In the worst of situations in Nigeria, women suffer considerablediscrimination. The inequality that women face affects virtually all aspects ofsociety, yet, despite the higher profile given to women's issue in recentyears, there has been little progress in stopping such discrimination" (p.58). 17-3 . Hekmat, A. xxi).More than half its population lives in poverty with no access to cleanwater, literacy is below that of the Congo, and the per-person GNP is lowerthan it was during the 197 s. 1). She earned a doctorate degree,the Order of the Niger, and the Lenin Peace Prize (Falola, 1999, pp. In fact, under British rule, more women didattend school, but many of these schools focused on preparing women fordomestic service rather than political leadership. Okome, M. . Peacefully, Nigerian women win changesfrom big oil. 9). 23). However, what became Nigeria was colonized by the British, and, as aresult, its official language is English, making talking to the Westernworld easier than conversing with neighboring countries. The largest city, Lagos, sits on the Gulf of Guinea, close to theborder of Nigeria's neighbor to the west, Benin. Yet such rigidity is the result of certain ways ofinterpreting Islam, not necessarily accurately, and some evidence suggeststhat Nigerian Muslims in pre-colonial times did not use their religion torepress women but instead appropriated its view of distinctive genderroles. In the summer of 2 2, groups of women ledpeaceful demonstrations against two oil companies, Shell and Chevron, forignoring the concerns of the local people in their operations. . James & J. (1996). N. Women and politics in Nigeria:An appraisal. (undated). Withan estimated population of 11 million, the Federal Republic of Nigeria isthe tenth most populous country in the world, and the fifth largest oilsupplier to the U.S. 1. market (Maier, 2 , p. Maier (2 ) describes the country's most recenthistory: Since winning independence from Britain in 196 , Nigeria has witnessed at least one million deaths in Africa's biggest civil war, the assassination of two government leaders, six successful coups and four failed ones, and thirty years of army rule (p. In fact, many scholars have come to dispute the conventional view ofthe pre-colonial Nigerian kingdoms as a disparate group of small, male-dominated villages whose women were prized primarily for their ability toproduce children. (1998). Weaving in certain partsof sub-Saharan Africa was principally a male occupation, except in certainareas, including Nigeria. Yet being female in Nigeria is also to be heir to a complex heritageand a history that is not always easy to understand in Eurocentric terms.Drawing on a small but significant tradition of protest and a custom ofsubtle but important social influence, Nigerian women are not easilyunderstood by outsiders. Womenrepresent only about a quarter of the secondary students; 14 percent ofgirls ages 12 to 17 are enrolled in school, compared with 42 percent ofboys the same age. The political and economic factors that haveresulted in the creation of a complicated and chaotic nation have alsoconspired to make the situation of its female citizens difficult tocategorize in any easy way. Wright (1998) observes, "Nigeria, like all African societies, is male-dominated. The arrival of Europeans imposed new ways of living and governing theregion. The Better Life Program for Rural Womenwas established in the early 199 s as an office of the first lady with abudget to promote women's issues, "controlled by wives of the president andgovernors and dominated by urban women, providing an opportunity forfashion parades rather than gender empowerment" (Falola, 1999, p. (1999). Yet, some argue that this system allowed womenmore freedom. Mrs. Olufunmilayo Ransome-Kuti (19 -1978) was a prominent politician andwomen's rights activist. Single-sex schooling and itseffects on Nigerian adolescents. Etim (Eds.), The feminization ofdevelopment processes in Africa: Current and future perspectives, pp. Yet, a few other examples emphasize the fact that Nigerian womencontinue to assert influence on society and politics, however sporadically. xv). The riot "forced the British to democratizethe local government in the region and involve the elders" (Falola, 1999,p. In M. A girl sellingherself in the European market can earn in a few months what would take hera dozen years to earn in conventional employment in her native country. Although her involvement in the slave trademakes her a controversial figure today, she is nonetheless respected forher ability to play an important economic role in Nigerian society at atime when few women anywhere in the world were able to accomplish suchbusiness success. In the pre-colonial period, men and women had specific roles to fill,dictated by their gender. Bloc (Ed.), Women and educationin Sub-Saharan Africa: Power, opportunities, and constraints, pp. Islam allows men to marry several wives, a practice that the laterEuropean arrivals found distasteful. Kofi Johnson and Babatunde Oyinade (1999) contend, Colonial rule in Nigeria was a devastating period that completely diminished the influence of women in the country's political process . Boulder, CO: Westview. Third World Cities in Global Perspective: Thepolitical economy of uneven urbanization. Because the colonial rulers believed that women ingeneral should play a subservient role, they did not influence Nigeriansociety to advance the cause of women's emancipation, and this trendcontinued when the nation became independent. NewYork: Public Affairs. The nation was amalgamatedinto a single entity in 1914 by the British and became independent ofBritish rule in 196 . This was a revolt against the threat of directtaxation, especially taxes imposed on women, by the British. Polygamy is often condemned asdisadvantageous to women. Nigerian women rarely constitute more than 15 percent ofuniversity graduates in a given year (Wright, 1998, p. As Nigeria attempts to become more urbanized and moretechnological, its emphasis has shifted even more substantially to areaswomen are discouraged from entering. . Lee, V. 17).The pre-colonial period, while not dominated by a large number of women inpolitical roles, nevertheless included some prominent female figures, suchas Queen Amina of Zaria and the Queen of Daura. In V. Because the party had been foundedby a woman, it had a harder time gaining followers, yet politicalpartisanship has always been problematic in post-colonial Nigeria, with themilitary continuing to wield considerable power disproportionate tocivilian efforts to control the government. 2 1-226.Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner. Christian Science Monitor, p. References Falola, T. Two particularly disturbing problems facing Nigerian women incontemporary society are prostitution (especially prostitution thatsmuggles women out of the country) and the long-standing custom of femalecircumcision. Women and the Koran: The status of women inIslam. Valerie E. Inaddition, as educational opportunities continue to be scarce or beyond themeans of most girls, prostitution offers chances to travel and gain socialadvantages that school never will. However,considering the history of Nigeria in a Eurocentric context ignores andsimplifies what is actually a complex and disputed issue. Embarrassed by the threat of public nudity,Chevron ended up sending senior executives to negotiate concessions. Further down the coastlies Port Harcourt, which Karl Maier (2 ) calls "the unofficial capitalof black Africa's biggest oil industry" (p. The most dangerous form, infibulation, is still practiced in some areas. Not only was their advice important, they were major powerbrokers as well" (p. xviii). E. (1999). Female circumcision is also a significant issue. Peel, M. However, because of the deep cultural roots of this practice, the Government has relied primarily on education through women's and public health organizations to help induce change in attitudes rather than trying to criminalize the practice (p. One important woman in Nigerian history was Madame Tinubu (18 5-1887), who was a successful businesswoman trading in salt, tobacco, andslaves. (1998). Maier (2 ) argues, "To most outsiders, the very name Nigeriaconjures up images of chaos and confusion, military coups, repression, drugtrafficking, and business fraud" (p. Women are expected toremain chaste, except with their husbands, and rape is generally consideredto be the fault of the victim, who often bears the primary, if not theonly, legal punishment for its occurrence. Mojúbàolú OlúfúnkéOkome (undated) writes: The Government publicly opposes female circumcision, which reportedly affects close to 5 percent of the female population. Westport, CT:Greenwood. Shecites, for example, the centralized northern state of Kanem-Borno, where"women leaders were powerful, especially three of them: the Mai's [king's]mother (Magira), the Mai's senior sister (Magara), and the Mai's first wife(Gumsu). Lockheed (1998) observe, Although males and females have been afforded theoretically equal access to education since the 196 s, traditional school attitudes about the appropriateness of education for young Nigerian women were not apt to change so rapidly toward social equality of the sexes (p. Conventional interpretation suggests that educational opportunitiesfor women improved under colonialism and then slipped back to some versionof pre-colonial neglect. Maier, K. 72), though at a substantial cost. Within the family, age and position within thefamily had more influence than did gender. Johnson, K., & Oyinade, B. Despite the best efforts of the British, about 45 percent of thepopulation remains Muslim. Westport, CT: Praeger. Domestic, regional, and internationalprotection of Nigerian women against discrimination: Constraints andpossibilities. E., & Lockheed, M. Finally, Nigeria's population includesmany more women than men, yet males are valued more highly by the society,and women are unable to inherit property, making prostitution one of thefew possibilities for a woman to gain some measure of independence. Such examples are vivid but not common in Nigerian history, as Wright(1998) records: During the nationalist struggle there were cases of female involvement at the leadership level, notably the role of Fumilayo Ransome-Kuti as treasurer of the Western NCNC and the head of the Nigerian Women's Union in the 195 s, but the relative absence of visible influential women in the colonial government and in London left Nigerian male political leaders with little reason to incorporate women into the decolonization process. The history of Nigeria. 78). Toyin Falola (1999) argues that, in some ofthe pre-colonial kingdoms, women played important roles politically. U. In terms of land mass,it is a medium-sized African nation, situated above the Equator along thesouthwestern bulge of the upper part of the continent, with a substantialcoastline, a good share of tropical rainforests, and extending up towardthe lower reaches of the Sahara Desert. Stephen Wright (1998) reports, "Nigeria is Africa's most populouscountry and, economically, one of the continent's strongest" (p. Smith (1996) notes that the area that becamenorthern Nigeria contained "a number of relatively large, thriving tradecenters well before the British arrived," many estimated at 3 , to5 , inhabitants (p. 243-244). One of the most famous incidents was the women'sriot in Aba in 1929. For instance, wood and metal sculptors wereusually male, while potters were usually female. (2 2, August 12). Husbands are legally able to prevent their wives fromworking and from obtaining passports. Olaniwun Adunni Oluwole (19 5-1957) was a champion for the worker.She was one of the first women in the country to form a political party,the Nigerian Commoners' Liberal Party. Amherst, NY: Prometheus. 59). 58).Wright (1998) argues, "Although it is estimated that women provide themajority of agricultural production, this circumstance does not translateinto political influence, which tends to emanate from industry and urbancenters and also from control of financial resources, something women lack"(p. In 1948, she formed the Egba Women's Union, whichwas the organization which formed a protest against the Alake, the king ofthe town of Abeokuta. This long-standingpractice is a painful means of controlling women by surgically alteringtheir genitals in order to diminish sexual sensitivity. At the same time, the prevalence of Islam influenced attitudes towardwomen in pre-colonial society. 4). This house has fallen: Midnight in Nigeria. The discovery of oilovershadowed an economy that had once been based primarily on agriculture(cocoa, palm oil, bananas, etc.). Under colonial oppression, some Nigerian women nevertheless managedto assert themselves. Yet some argue that, in a society emphasizing childbearingas the woman's principal role, this system allowed women to share that taskwith other wives and therefore to make other contributions to society, aswell. Nigeria: Struggle for stability and status.Boulder, CO: Westview. The situation for the nation's women isespecially bleak. David A. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.