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Paper Abstract: Discusses social and cultural aspects. Evolving notion of motherhood. Influence of external institutions such as the Church, the State and the medical institutions. Changing attitudes toward mothers and "mothercraft" related to societal perceptions about women. Idea of the connection of childrearing to the public domain. Oppression of women. Paper Introduction: Although motherhood revolves around women’s capacity to reproduce, its inherent concept is primarily defined by the prevalent social and cultural practices of its times. In modern history, the evolving notion of motherhood has enabled external institutions such as the Church, the State and the medical institutions to dictate how women should behave and more specifically how they should raise their children (Ross 4-5). From the development of the concept of the “republican motherhood” to the infant welfare and eugenics movements of early 20th century, women have had to endure the intrusive participation of outside agents in their domestic arenas and the violation of the privacy of their bodies. This paper thus traces how the changing concept of motherhood has shaped the lives of women in the modern era. Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. These women in the middleclass experienced patriarchal oppression by being compelled to performhousehold tasks, reproduce and raise children without remuneration. Moreover, the invention of the concept of "republican motherhood" inthe late 18th century afforded mothers token participation in the politicallife of the community, from which they were largely exempt. Over the last three centuries, attitudes towards mothers, motherhoodand "mothercraft" have evolved considerably. Certainly, these attitudes arealso related to the prevalent perceptions about women. Many of these interventions were premised on the unreasonable beliefthat mothers were ultimately responsible for the well-being of theirinfants, not environmental factors. However, towards the end of the 18th century, religious establishmentssuch as the British evangelicals transformed the prevalent attitudestowards women and mothers by highlighting their purity and morality in abid to preserve the stability of British society in the wake of the FrenchRevolution. Considered to be undesirable in the society, they and theirchildren were poorly treated, if not exterminated (Bock 418-9). Stanford: Stanford UP, 1975.Kerber, Linda K. "Women on Top." Society and Culture in Early Modern France. As pointed out above, the state andother related organizations in the early 2 th century often violated theprivacy of mothers by controlling their sexual lives and dictating how theyshould raise their children. For example, a poor woman who would have to decidewhether money should be spent on food or new spectacles for her child wouldnaturally opt for the first priority (Ross 197). In addition, the institutional notions of motherhood that has led tothe imposition of social and cultural standards on mothers have furtherincreased the oppression of women. Based on this novel conception of motherhood, theidea that childrearing was connected to the public domain was born.Essentially, motherhood was inextricably interwoven with the future of therepublic (Kerber 6 ). The Infant Welfare movement inLondon was a concerted attempt by governmental and private organizations toalter working class mothers' attitudes towards childrearing. Thedesexualization of the male-female relationships enabled women to controltheir reproduction in an age that did not offer contraceptive options.Women were thus empowered by their ability to decide when they wanted tohave children during the Victorian era (Cott 225-34). Women from the middle classfamilies were more likely to avoid forced sterilizations than theirimpoverished counterparts in the lower classes. Chapel Hill: U of North Carolina P, 1997.Ross, Ellen. Their capacity to reproduce was furtherused as an explanation for the fact that their beings were controlled bytheir bodily impulses and desire (Davis 124-5). At the same time, motherhood with its strong biological connotationsand the associated functions of childrearing and housework has also playeda strong role in restricting women's expansion into other areas of society.Certainly, the Nazis had defined women solely on their capacity toreproduce and raise children (Bock 4 2). Therefore, they play a criticalrole in the creation of a positive society. However, their high and rigid expectations essentially placedincreased pressure on the mothers' capacity to feed their family and managetheir households. Motherhood can be interpretedas a feminist concept because it celebrates the life-giving capacity ofwomen. The differences between the fates of women from the different classeswere even starker under the Nazi regime. New York: Oxford UP, 1993. Furthermore, as Marxist feministspoint out, the tasks performed by mothers such as child raising andmanaging their households are underrated by society because they do notproduce monetary income. TheState and the medical establishment violated the privacy of women bydeciding which women would be compelled to have children by making abortionillegal and prescribing eugenic sterilization for other women who wereconsidered undesirable for the ideal society (Bock 4 8-9). Therefore, it is important for society to recognize thatmotherhood is not an objective biological concept with no inherent biases.Rather, social and cultural institutions have played a critical role inredefining and controlling the concept of motherhood, thus imposing theirpower over the lives of women. On theother hand, women from the working class had little choice, but to work inmenial jobs. Yet it is also important to distinguish between the types ofoppression encountered by women from different classes. During the last few centuries, menrelegated women to the periphery of society based on the latter's motheringresponsibilities. Works CitedBock, Gisela. "Passionlessness: An Interpretation of Victorian Sexual Ideology, 179 -185 ." Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 4.2 (1978): 219-236.Davis, Natalie Zemon. While mostBritish women from impoverished backgrounds were focused on their dailysurvival and the management of their households, the movement believed thatmothers should incorporate childcare practices promoted by the state andthe medical establishment. Therefore, they did not regard stateintervention as a positive endeavor that enhanced the quality of theirlives (Ross 195). The portrayal of women and mothers as morally superiorcreatures led to the elevation of their roles in the family and thesociety. "The Republican Mother Women and the Enlightenment." Toward an Intellectual History of Women. Although motherhood revolves around women's capacity to reproduce,its inherent concept is primarily defined by the prevalent social andcultural practices of its times. Love & Toil: Motherhood in Outcast London, 187 -1918. Wives were no longer regarded as sexual objects that were expectedto offer their sexual services to their husbands at the latter's whim. Therefore, mothers are vulnerable individuals whoare dependent on their husbands for their survival (Ross 6-7). From thedevelopment of the concept of the "republican motherhood" to the infantwelfare and eugenics movements of early 2 th century, women have had toendure the intrusive participation of outside agents in their domesticarenas and the violation of the privacy of their bodies. This paper thustraces how the changing concept of motherhood has shaped the lives of womenin the modern era. In a more radical way, mothers were utilized as tools for the Nazis torealize their vision of creating a society dominated by superiorindividuals as inferior people are gradually eliminated (Bock 4 5-6). According to these organizations, motherhood wasmore than a private function; it was a "public duty" (Ross 195). Before the 18thcentury, women were regarded as animalistic creatures primarily driven bytheir passions and sexual desires. "Racism and Sexism in Nazi Germany: Motherhood, Compulsory Sterilization, and the State." Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 8.3 (1983): 4 -21.Cott, Nancy F. In reality, mothers were generallyunable to prevent infant deaths caused by epidemics and other diseasesregardless of how well they cleaned their utensils (Ross 2 3). The concept of "republican motherhood" captures the vital roleplayed by women who are fundamentally responsible for the reproduction andrearing of future adults (Kerber 58-9). However, women's agitation for more rights led to men'sconcession that motherhood could play a significant role in raisingvirtuous male citizens. While middle classmothers had the resources to integrate notions of childcare practicesadvocated by the Infant Welfare movement, women from the working classeswere not equally fortunate. The public nature of motherhood had adverse consequences for womenduring the early part of the 2 th century. Yet, this progressive step led to the intrusion ofthe state and other external organizations into women's domestic domains.In extreme cases such as the Nazi regime, the privacy of women's bodies wasalso violated. In modern history, the evolving notion ofmotherhood has enabled external institutions such as the Church, the Stateand the medical institutions to dictate how women should behave and morespecifically how they should raise their children (Ross 4-5). The discussion of the changes in the attitudes towards mothershighlights the fact that motherhood is a double-edged concept that hashelped and undermined the progress of women. This discussion has shown that motherhood lies at the heart of howsociety has defined women for centuries. Nonetheless,health, school and medical officials were determined to intervene in thedomestic households of the poor women in order to raise their standards ofchildrearing. Theywere essentially dependent on their husbands for their survival. According tothis concept of motherhood, mothers played a critical role in protectingthe political status of the republics by cultivating the growth of virtuouscitizens (Kerber 58-9). If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.