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Paper Abstract: His political struggles. His role in gaining India's independence from Great Britain. The historical and political context in which Gandhi's independence movement emerged. Influence of religion. Gandhi's methods of political persuasion. Home-rule activities. His commitment to non-violence and use of passive resistance. Power and religious struggles of Hindus, Muslims and Congress Party advocates. Paper Introduction: This research examines the political strategies of Mohandas K. Gandhi in the project of gaining India's independence, as well as the role that religion played in shaping Gandhi's approach to the British Empire. The research will set forth the historical and political context in which Gandhi's independence movement emerged, and then discuss ways in which he made use of attributes unique to Indian culture to persuade the Indians to pursue independence while also exploiting his familiarity with Christianity and Euro-Christian culture to manage both the tactics of the independence campaign and the structure of negotiations with the British. Gandhi, who received the honorific title Mahatma ("great soul") during his lifetime, was assassinated at the age of 80 in 1948, following the achievement of India's absolute independence from Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. The familiar characterization of Gandhi's political ethos is "passiveresistance." Gandhi rejected that characterization of his methods andstruggle. Soon after his return to India in 1931 Gandhi wasimprisoned by British authorities. . At this conference, Gandhi found an agenda dealing notwith independence per se but rather with the rights of ethnic and religiousminorities in India. 213). Its reading cured me of my skepticism and made me a firm believer in [non-violence]. (2 , February 21). Whether Britain wins or loses imperialism has to die. But it would be more accurate tosay that Gandhi's politics embraces and acknowledges a religious componentas fundamental to human experience while also moving beyond it in thepolitical context. The_speaking_tree:_A_study_of_Indian_cultureand_society. In my opinion, it is a book which . (2 ). 2 6-7). Gandhi withdrew frompublic life until 1927, when the British created a constitutionalcommission that included no Indians on it. Nonviolence was conceived by him as "conscious suffering," not as meek submission to the will of the evil-doer, but the "the putting of one's whole soul against the will of the tyrant" It means the restitution of the ancient Indian law of self-sacrifice. (195 ). Lannoy, R. K. Hinduism. (2 ). Nor did sacrifice of self become equivalent to self-abnegation. Gandhiin the project of gaining India's independence, as well as the role thatreligion played in shaping Gandhi's approach to the British Empire. What is relevant to this research is that, in 1928, Gandhispecifically and programmatically attributed to Tolstoy's text his decisionto embrace nonviolence as the controlling ideology of his politicalactivism: I was at that time a believer in violence. London: Oxford University Press. Swaraj [Home Rule or Self-Rule] would descend upon India from heaven (Fischer, 1962, pp. Theresearch will set forth the historical and political context in whichGandhi's independence movement emerged, and then discuss ways in which hemade use of attributes unique to Indian culture to persuade the Indians topursue independence while also exploiting his familiarity with Christianityand Euro-Christian culture to manage both the tactics of the independencecampaign and the structure of negotiations with the British. NewYork: Vintage. (2 ). He was converted to noninstitutional Christianity, taking hiscue not from the Russian Orthodox Church but from the Beatitudes, which hesaid focused on "social repentance, religious purification, radicalopposition to the interests and institutions of he world, rejection ofproperty, power, war, oath and political statutes" (Runes, 195 , p. This statement is relevant to Gandhi's methods of political persuasionnot only because of the consistency with which he publicly articulated hisviews to the Indian people but also because the structure of Gandhi'spolitical activism had rather specific religious roots. Gandhi's dilemma: Nonviolent principles andnationalist power. (1974). B. (1998, April 13). . The British arrested thousands of marchers, a pattern that was to berepeated until the 194 s. Itinvolves sacrifice of self" (as cited in Fischer, 1962. Fischer, L. By 19 9, agitation for Indian home rule had begun in earnest, butbecause of his exposure to Tolstoy's interpretation of Christianity, Gandhidistanced himself from both extremist and moderate Indian home-ruleactivists alike because. During this periodGandhi sent Tolstoy a copy of Hind Swaraj, Gandhi's treatise on Indian homerule, which according to Steger (2 ) reflects Tolstoy's principle of"active love." Tolstoy died in 191 (Fischer, 1962). Treasury of Philosophy. . Instead, he described himself as a "practical idealist" (Runes, 195 , p. Their principal mechanisms were ahimsa and satyagraha, or civildisobedience aimed at effecting political change. As he stated in Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule,"either party relies on violence ultimately." In an introduction to the1938 edition of Hind Swaraj, Gandhi stuck to that theme: I felt that violence was no remedy for India's ills, and that her civilization required the use of a different and higher weapon for self-protection. Gandhi's commitment to nonviolence should not be confused with acommitment to either nonconfrontation or modest results. Orderly British withdrawal will turn the hatred into affection. replaces violence with self-sacrifice. Mohandas K. . In the mid-193 s, Gandhi distanced himselffrom politicians who he felt used nonviolence instrumentally to gain powerand set about organizing Indian masses, as well as indigenous industries,from the "bottom up." By 1942, however, he reemerged as leader of anindependence movement, continually challenging the British Raj until themovement was completed. Further, among Gandhi'srelatively limited writing are commentaries on Hinduism. What has appealed to me most in Tolstoy's life is that he practiced what he preached and reckoned no cost too great in his pursuit of truth. In India, in the day of nonamplification, arally of a million people might take place, with Gandhi making a statementand with most of the people in the crowd unable to hear what was beingsaid. 41). 346). As of 2 2, the religious basisof murderous violence persists within India and between India (mainlyHindu) and Pakistan (mainly Muslim). Gandhi was urged, without success, to convert to Christianity, buthe wrote that the "defects" of Hinduism, notably its sectarianism andcasteism, were also "depressingly visible to me" (as cited in Fischer,1962, p. Gandhi, who received the honorific title Mahatma ("great soul") duringhis lifetime, was assassinated at the age of 8 in 1948, following theachievement of India's absolute independence from British rule. 65). According to Naran (2 ), itwas in South Africa that the concept of satyagraha first emerged, a concepttested in brutal government retaliations against Gandhi and Indian workers.By 1914, however, South Africa had experienced international exposure andembarrassment, and Gandhi negotiated a settlement South African PresidentSmuts. Runes, D. . Periodically from the 192 s until independence, when various factions--Hindus, Muslims, Congress Party advocates--he led resorted to violence tofortify political gains, Gandhi had a pattern of withdrawing from publiclife or of fasting (hunger-striking) them into such embarrassment that theyfelt compelled to pacify themselves. Rushdie, S. . xviii). Person of the century. Gandhi. From that time until the completion of independence, Gandhi remainedinvolved in Indian politics, insisting on nonviolent but activemobilization meant to lead to British withdrawal. Disobedience need not beequated with violence or aggression, in Gandhi's formulation. Gandhi was a Hindu, and Lannoy, for one, argues that "Hindu culturepatterns have influenced virtually every minority group, including theChristians, Muslims, and Parsis" (1974, p. 413). "Gandhi's principle was bogus": More than half a century later, thebrother of the man who killed Mohandas Gandhi speaks of his role in thecrime. But Gandhispecifically rejected the project of creating a Hindu state out of Indianindependence, commenting that "all religions are more or less true" andthat no (religious) "propaganda can be allowed which reviles otherreligions" (as cited in Fischer, 1962, p. According to Fischer, Gandhi was much affected by Tolstoy's TheKingdom of God Is Within You, which he read in the context of acquaintancewith Christians involved in obtaining social justice for Indians in SouthAfrica. 346, 347). . In 1928, Gandhi regainedleadership of the Congress Party by formally moving "the crucial resolutiondemanding dominion status from the British government within a year underthreat of a nation-wide nonviolent campaign for complete independence"(Naran, 2 ). The Sanskritword darshana is literally translated as "auspicious viewing" (Smith, 2 )and otherwise as contact with sanctity (McGeary, 1999, p. References Decline of empire: Gandhi, salt and freedom. Even after themassacre of the Hindus by the Muslims, he was happy. . (1962). Mohandas Gandhi: His philosophy ofnonviolence and his passion for independence began a drive for freedom thatdoomed colonialism. A Hindureligious extremist conspiracy supporting the shooter, one Nathuram Godse,later executed for the murder, was behind the assassination. (1999, December 25).Economist, 353, 65. Hitherto the rulers have said, 'We would gladly retire if we knew towhom we should hand over the reins.' My answer now is, 'Leave India to God.If that is too much, then leave her to anarchy'" (as cited in Fischer,1962, p. Mohandas K. I am therefore trying to wean the people from their hatred by asking them to develop the strength of mind to invite the British to withdraw. Rather, itemphasizes engagement that carries risk, not to the object of confrontation(the civil government), but to its agent (the activist): "If I do not obeythe law, and accept the penalty for the breach, I use Soul-Force. . In that year as well, Gandhi returned to India permanently, whereover the next 35 years he would engage in activities that led to Indianindependence. New York:Philosophical library. In Britannica 2 1 DeluxeEdition CD-ROM. He was imprisoned, thenreleased, and political factionalism dissolved into violent rioting in somevillages. But whether hebenefited from the violence of rival political factions, the weight ofevidence is on the side of the view that Gandhi himself uniformly opposedits strategic or tactical use, and for reasons that had their source inboth Indian and Christian religious traditions. Thus his articulation in The Story of My Experimentswith Truth of a "devotion to Truth (always uppercase for Gandhi), which"has drawn me into the field of politics." Gandhi continues: To see the universal and all-pervading Spirit of Truth face to face one must be able to love the meanest of creatures as oneself. . No one in the West before him or since has written and spoken on non-violence so fully or insistently . And a man who aspires after that cannot afford to keep out of any field of life. Martin's Press. Time, 151, 128-31. 2 7). (Chicago: Encyclopaeda Britannica). From his omnivorousacceptance of Tolstoy (if not Christianity), Gandhi proceeded to adopt theJain doctrine of ahimsa, translated as "noninjury," onto his politicalprogram. Tolstoy's life with its oceanlike love should serve as a beacon light and a never-failing source of inspiration (as cited in Fischer, 1962, pp. Instead, the mechanism of mobilization was a systematic,indeed militant, "battle-cry" (Runes, 195 , p. Heehs, P. (1999, December 31). 213). . If India adopted the doctrine of love as an active part of her religion and introduced it in her politics. p. New York: St. Gandhi supported the British government during the Great War, but whenin 1919 the imperial government began imprisoning Indians for seditionwithout trial, Gandhi announced a new program of stayagraha, only towithdraw it after a massacre of several hundred attendants at a massmeeting in the Punjab town of Amritsar (Naran, 2 ). . Gandhi's charismatic capital was enlistedin confrontations that were at the core of the program for independence.The notion of civil disobedience carries with it an implication ofactivity, not passivity. Thepersistence of feeling against Gandhi was expressed in 2 by 8 -year-oldGopal Godse, who served prison time for his own part in the conspiracy andwho remained unapologetic about it: "Gandhi was a hypocrite. . 118), whichconveys the idea that just being in the presence of a divinely anointedleader fosters inspiration. McGeary, J. During the 192 s,Gandhi was able to structure the Congress National Party, reinforced by aprogram of boycotts of British anufactured ogods. 88). The more the massacresof the Hindus, the taller he raised his flag of secularism" ("Gandhi'sprinciple," 2 , p. "True ahimsa," continued Gandhi, "should mean a complete freedomfrom ill will and anger and hate and an overflowing love for all" (as citedin Fischer, 1962, p. 118-19).Fischer (1962, p. There is ample evidence that Gandhi employed what would todaybe referred to as media savvy to accomplish measurable results in the questfor independence. This research examines the political strategies of Mohandas K. In a retrospective ofGandhi's 193 "Liberty March," or mass march to the sea to make salt andpublicly evade the imperial mandate to buy it from approved monopolies(i.e., evade the salt tax), London's Economist cites the statement Gandhimade at the time to fellow marchers, reporters, and newsreel companies:"With this salt I am shaking the foundations of the British empire" (1999,p. 413. Steger, M. On the other hand, Heehs (1993)asserts that the violence of some Indian independence factions notaffiliated with Gandhi served Gandhi's political agenda because of theBritish perception that Gandhi was the lesser evil. 88). 17; emphasis added). . The fact that Indian independenceentailed a divided India, the birth of Pakistan being coeval with the birthof the Indian state and the antipathy of Pakistan and India a persistentfeature of geopolitics since 1948, was a great regret for Gandhi, who hadenvisioned a united nation (Rushdie, 1998). Moreimportant, he had mobilized virtually an entire nation for politicalrevolution without recourse to overt military engagement of India'simperial masters. . 1174). . Gandhi's initial reputation was made in South Africa,where he called strikes, led civil disobedience to protest social andemployment discrimination and segregation of Indians in that country, andfrom time to time was imprisoned as a result. Time International, 155, 17. Gandhi's charismawas operationalized in the service of Indian independence. . In 1924, he publicized the fact that he was going to fast untilthe violence ended, which it did after three weeks. Gandhi. Runes citesGandhi's debt to the Russian novelist Tolstoy, who, upon publication ofAnna Karenina in 1877 (War and Peace had appeared in 1869) rather famouslyunderwent a late-life conversion after what appears to have been a mentalbreakdown. It is certainly of no use now to the British people, whatever it may have been in the past (as cited in Fischer, 1962, pp. . However, following the salt march Gandhi wasinvited to the Round Table Conference in London to represent the IndianNational Congress. Nanda, B.R. A 1942 statement,made to answer British charges that British withdrawal would inviteJapanese invasion, is unambiguous and direct in its assertion thatcontinued British presence in India encouraged Indians to welcome theJapanese as liberators: "British rule in India in any shape or form mustend. . The fact that Gandhi's revolutionary leadership was implementedsystematically but without a commitment to armed insurrection does not meanthat India was immune to political violence, either before or after Indianindependence. 413) of nonviolentconfrontation and noncooperation with British authority--tyranny, inGandhi's formulation--in India. It pits soul-force against brute-force. Smith, B. . Gandhi and Tolstoy corresponded in 19 9-191 . But they were there because to be there and to be drawn together incommon cause was the thing to do. Terrorism in India during the freedom struggle.Historian, 55, 469-482. . The essential Gandhi: His life, work, and ideas. He continues: If we are strong the British become powerless. The consistency of political articulation throughout his career can beseen as a significant reason for Gandhi's ability to convince Indians thatpursuing independence was a useful and realizable goal. In its place, he posited the value of Soul-Force and the politicalpower implicit in enacting and enduring sacrifice consistent with theChristian doctrine that unmerited suffering is redemptive. To be sure, the notion of resistance can beinterpreted as active, but Gandhi considered passive resistance a misnomerbecause it also carried the idea of harassment, or aggression, and in itsultimate expression could be "looked upon as a preparation for the use of[armed] force," which he rejected specifically (as cited in Fischer, 1962,p. One does not have to behostile to Gandhi's view of religion to to suggest that it implies asecular conceptualization of statehood. (1993). . However, he "regained the initiative; inSeptember 1932, while still a prisoner, he embarked on a fast to protestagainst the British government's decision to segregate the untouchables(the depressed classes) by allotting them separate electorates in the newconstitution" (Naran, 2 ). He repeatedly protested against being regarded as a visionary. 347) quotes another passage from Gandhi's correspondenceto the effect that "freedom won through non-violence will mean theinauguration of a new order in the world." Gandhi's assassination demonstrates that the price of politicalactivism predicated of misunderstood religious purification can be high.What the effects of violent sectarianism and factionalism do not capture isthat by the time of his death Gandhi had, over a period of decades, broughtthe British Empire more or less to its knees and presaged a momentum towarda series of colonialist and imperialist divestitures that were to takeplace in Asia and Africa over the last half of the 2 th century. I can say without the slightest hesitation and yet in all humility, that those who say that religion has noting to do with politics do not know what religion means (as cited in Fischer, 1962, p. In Britannica 2 1 Deluxe Edition CD-ROM.(Chicago: Encyclopaeda Britannica). 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