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Paper Abstract: Proposal based on a review of literature re: conflicting theories of causes & treatments. Paper Introduction: CONFLICTING THEORIES ON CAUSES & TREATMENT OF VIOLENT JUVENILE CRIME IN THE U.S. Introduction Statement of the Problem The literature has provided an extensive overview regarding youth and violent crime. A historic look at adolescent crime shows that murders committed by teens between the ages 14 and 17, increased 165% between 1985 and 1995. This number was feared to double by the year 2010. Drugs were blamed as were gangs and guns. Juvenile homicides are usually committed with handguns (90%). Childhood abuse was also thought to be a factor. Incarceration is viewed by some to be the answer, however effectiveness and a cost benefit ratio of this solution has not yet been determined (Crispell, 1997, p. 42). Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. A., Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., &Farrington, D. Cox, S. Brooks, T. Hagan, M. A replication and elaboration of the esteem-enhancementmodel. (1996). One of the most dominant theoriesused by criminologists is Hirschi's social bonding theory. (1997).Maternal and perinatal risk factors for later delinquency. Ngai, N. Implementing juvenile curfew programs. Halpern, R., Barker, G., & Mollard, W. The significance ofresources in models of risk. Chambers, J. A., Hazel, R. 637).Barriers to the successful treatment of offenders and the significance ofhelpful resources for the prevention of risk will be discussed. (1997). (2 ).The quality of perceived parenting and its association with peerrelationships and psychological distress in a group of incarcerated youngoffenders. Psychiatry, 59(2), 128-14 . Belknap, Holsinger, and Dunn (1997) report that childhoodviolations lead to increased risk of offending or being offended. 261-261). Journalof Mental Health, 6(5), 433-442. Lesin, L. Office ofJuvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Journal of Youth and Adolescence,24(5), 617-629. Rosenblatt, J. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 158(4), 467-479. Some researchers have concluded that school difficulties isone of the most accurate predictors of delinquency in the U.S. CONFLICTING THEORIES ON CAUSES & TREATMENT OF VIOLENT JUVENILE CRIME IN THE U.S. Juvenile homicides are usually committedwith handguns (9 %). Alternative treatment methods will include a review of behavioralcomponents. The hope is to add this collaborative researchto the information found by other agencies and the juvenile justiceagencies, and find needed solutions. A historic look at adolescent crime shows that murderscommitted by teens between the ages 14 and 17, increased 165% between 1985and 1995. F. National Review, 52(6),28-29. The number ofquality studies must be increased, and the evidence acquired must besystematically reviewed. Phi Delta Kappan, 81(7),482. Pediatrics,99(6), 785-791. Regarding total crime, prior to 1987, homicide offenders wereequally black and white; by 1994, 61% of juvenile homicide offenders wereblack. (2 ). Bazemore, G., & Terry, W. International Journal of Offender Therapyand Comparative Criminology, 41(4), 351-357. The juvenile crimechallenge: Making prevention a priority. Violent crimes sometimes occurin school-associated settings. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this research is to provide a review of the literatureregarding conflicting theories on causes and treatment of violent juvenilecrime. (2 ). P., & Cheung, C. Type of drug involvement and its relationship to level ofviolence is inconclusive. Criminalbehavior and emotional disorder: Comparing youth served by the mentalhealth and juvenile justice systems. Next, symbolic interaction theories, which included cognitive andemotional components, became popular. Adolescents' use of socially disvalued media:Towards a theory of media delinquency. Included in this research will be a review of legislative proposalsand ways that state and localities can participate in anti-crime programs.Public laws will be discussed. (Lotz & Lee,1999, p. 292-294). T. E., Berg, B. Adolescence, 32(126), 395-4 6. (2 ). Lotz, R., & Lee, L. External assetsinclude ways to increase support from family, personal relationships,school, and community, and methods to empower the youth, instill boundariesand expectations, and teach the constructive use of time (pp. (1997). 635). J. J. Juvenilesexual homicide. 35 ). F. The reduction of violence and the prevention of crime are consideredon multiple levels. J. The discussion of risk factors for juvenile crime willincorporate the following: family functioning, with the quality ofperceived parenting, familial patterns of verbal conflict resolution, andfamily adversity and physical anomalies. The PrisonJournal, 77(4), 381-4 4. E., Boulerice, B., Seguin, J. (1997). FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 69(3), 1-7. AmericanDemographics, 19(12), 42-43. 357). This more recent focus on crimestudy has included the social learning theory, neutralization theory, andrational choice theory, which all include the role of cognition. P. This review will report on federal surveillance activities, federalevaluation research and other research activities, and federal researchsynthesis and application activities. How to make a criminal. Background of the Problem Research demonstrates that violent crime results from manyinteracting risk factors which include individual, relationship,situational, and community aspects. (2 ). Pediatrics, 1 3(1), 129-139. The effects of media onjuvenile delinquency and crime will be discussed. (2 ).Rehabilitation in the new machine? Minor physical anomalies and family adversity asrisk factors for violent delinquency in adolescence. 1 97/S. A., Rosenblatt, A., & Biggs, E. Youth and Society, 29(2),238-253. Controversy still remains, however, regarding the effectiveness ofrehabilitation of emotional disorders associated with juvenile crime(Rosenblatt, Rosenblatt, & Biggs, 2 , p. SocialEducation, 64(4), 225-236. Employment has been found to decrease delinquency, whetherthis consequence is due to a raised self-esteem, the building of arelationship with society, or the providing of an activity, is unclear(Ploeger, 1997, p. Legislature, state and local officials all effort tocombat teenage violent crime. Child Welfare, 76(6), 827-832. A presentation of emotional components will consist of the followingfactors: early identification and intervention of those youths with apredisposition toward antisocial or violent behavior, criminal behaviorlinked with these or other emotional disorders, and the treatment of thementally disturbed juvenile offender. In the 197 s, situational selection theories andstudies, that focused on the offenders use of situational cues for decision-making, were popular. Shek, D. Familystructure versus parental attachment in controlling adolescent deviantbehavior: A social control model. Considered amajor social control theory, it has been used for nearly 3 years. F. Enos, G. Balancing juvenile justice/ young blood:Juvenile justice and the death penalty. D. The integrated theoryconflicts with the situational or containment theory that views theindividual as being pushed toward crime by situational factors. Pediatrics, 1 5(3), 635-64 . Homicide is reported to be the second leading cause of death forAmerican youth ages 15 years to 24 years. L. Office of Justice Programs. (1997). (1995). (2 ). Gilgun, J. The POM (Principle of Mind) theory is a current and conflictingintegrated theory. Fergusson, D. Introduction to Juvenile Crime in the U.S. Cutting the edge: Current perspectives nradical/critical criminology and criminal justice. Youth and Society, 29(2),139-165. violence! Adolescence, 32(125), 199-216. Criminology, 35(4), 659-675. (2 ). Criminal Justice and Behavior, 27(3),275-291. Outline of Literature Review Relevant to the proposed topic and included in the literature reviewoutline will be the following subjects: an introduction to juvenile crime,with trends and prevalence, state and federal activities, and criminaljustice; conflicting theories, with the POM theory, social control theory,social bonding theory, and containment theory; causes of juvenile crime,including risk factors, and aspects of recidivism; and treatment ofjuvenile crime, consisting of violence reduction and prevention, mentalhealth considerations, and barriers to successful self-help or treatment. Battistich, V., & Hom, A. Detoxifying schools. This review will discuss theconflict between POM (Principle of Mind) theory, and social control theory,social bonding theory, and containment theory. J. The discussion will include trends and prevalence, federal and stateactivities, and the criminal justice system. This theory includes a focus on the mind as the sourceof the offender's thought process, emotions, perceptions, and ability toexperience the world through the senses (Kelly, 1996, pp. 292). M., & Horwook, L. Youth employment and delinquency:Reconsidering a problematic relationship. 42). 5). Lopez and Emmer (2 ) offer the contemporary view that a valid studyof juvenile criminal behavior must include an integrated approach. Study Rationale Though previous literature has made many attempts to report factorsinvolved in causes and treatment of violent juvenile crime in the U.S., ithas failed to provide a comprehensive, integrative analysis of thisinformation. Anintegrated model would clarify how cognition, emotion, and motivationinteract with the context of the crime situation (Lopez & Emmer, pp. 292-294). (1997). Young and deadly. MacLellan, T. Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents, 33(48), 1911. Dealing with violent juvenile offenders.Employment and Social Services Division, NGA Center for Best Practices.Found online at: Lahey, B. Childhood socialpredictors of adolescent antisocial behavior: Gender differences inpredictive accuracy and efficacy. (1997). 199). 129). Parish-Plass, J., & Lufi, D. This theory includes theinner and outer factors that push or pull the adolescent toward delinquencyand crime. The role of adolescentpeer affiliations in the continuity between childhood behavioral adjustmentand juvenile offending. 2). This review will presentresearch findings regarding the relationship of drug use and gangmembership to violent youth crime. 139; Lahey, Gordon, Loeber, Stouthamer-Loeber, & Farrington, 1999, pp. G., Loucks, N., & Swanson, V. Withecomb, J. (1996). Theories conflict regarding juvenile crime. For this theory,boys are viewed as being socialized for more risk-taking behaviors thangirls, and these tendencies may be manifested in delinquency. (1997). Gough, P. Kuhl, J., Jarkon-Horlick, L., & Morrissey, R. Found online at:----------------------- 16 The Americanmedia glamorizes guns and this is believed to link adolescent homicides tothe media; guns are found in 26% of violent television interactions.Alcohol is also advertised on television and is thought to enhance theinfluence toward initial drinking episodes and later alcohol abuse(Strasburger & Donnerstein, 1999, p. The Brown University Child andAdolescent Behavior Letter, 12(5), 1. Verbal conflict resolutionin families of serious juvenile offenders. Antisocial behavior has been found to be associated with youthviolence and it is therefore a consideration for the treatment of violentcrime. (1997). The American Journalof Psychiatry, 157(6), 917-925. A medium's effects underscrutiny. (1997). International Journal ofOffender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 41(4), 34 -349. Causes of juvenile crime will be reviewed, including risk factors andaspects of recidivism. Introduction Statement of the Problem The literature has provided an extensive overview regarding youth andviolent crime. The authors state that anintegrated or "grounded" theory is necessary for the comprehensive study ofcognition, emotion, and the contexts of delinquent crime (pp. Crispell, D. This combined with after-school programs and anti-drug campaigns were concluded as factors in this crime reduction. Attempts have been made to establish a theory that would allow forthe study of juvenile offenders and determine the causes and treatment ofviolent juvenile crime. Early identification andintervention for youth with antisocial and violent behavior. Unconditioned thoughts areinnate, rational, and insightful. International Journal of Offender Therapy and ComparativeCriminology, 44(3), 35 -368. Department of Justice (USDJ). This research will review these contextual components and theirrelationship to treatment of juvenile crime. O. This theoryassumes that strong social and personal controls are needed to keepjuveniles from preventing crime. Lopex and Emmer (2 ) point out the differences between situationalselection studies and symbolic interaction studies and further report thatall theories must be integrated for the comprehensive study of adolescentoffenders. Riskfactors for juvenile criminal recidivism: The postrelease communityadjustment of juvenile offenders. C., & Donnerstein, E. Understanding these and other possiblecauses of youth violence is important since juveniles with more riskfactors are found to engage in violence from five times to twenty timesmore often. When an individual has strongbonds to significant others, their behaviors will be more likely to bedirected toward conformity (Kelly, pp. (1995). Research Method This research paper will review the literature and presentconflicting theories on causes and treatment of juvenile crime in theUnited States. The conflicting aspects will be presentedin this review of the literature. Schneider, J. Vitelli, R. Courtright, K. These social bondsare composed of attachment, commitment, involvement, and beliefs (Kelly,1996, p. Hepburn, M. 321-329). This number was feared to double by the year 2 1 . Sociability, school experience, anddelinquency. This research paper will review different contextual andinteractional theories and compare them to the POM theory. B. (1999). 6-8). MacLellan reports that efforts such as drug prevention, guncontrol, youth arrests, detention programs, and police counseling havefailed, and efforts that increase personal characteristic assets are moresuccessful. L., & Mutchnick, R. Journal of Youth andAdolescence, 26(6), 637-65 . This review will discussthese points and other gender differences found, such as those regardingrates for separate offenses or drug status, and processing and treatmentdistinctions. E., Jensen, J. Causes of Juvenile Crime in the U.S. CriminalJustice and Behavior, 24(4), 477-494. (1999). 4). A part of this theory includes the emphasis on self-esteem or agood self-concept. (1997). Policies, laws, and the developmentand use of specialized courts for juvenile crime will also be presented(MacLellan, 2 ). 293; Cox, Davidson, & Bynum, 1995, p. Youth and Society, 31(4), 469-5 6. (1997). was on the rise.More recently, drops in juvenile crime have been reported, however therates are still high and remain an ongoing concern. It has also been found thatpeer, family, and community relationships are important predictors of gangentry (Dukes, Martinez, & Stein, p. M., Davidson, W. Some studies have found heavy drug use to bemore involved in violent crimes and other research has found alcohol abuseto be more associated with homicides and violent crime (Dukes, Martinez, &Stein, 1997, p. (2 ). 631; Kuhl, Jarkon-Horlick, & Morrissey, 1997, p. Research shows a relationship between media violence and aggressionin adolescents, with an estimated effect size of 5% to 15%. Youth and Society, 31(2), 199-223. (1997). O., & Stein, J. Adolescence, 32(125), 61-81. (2 ).Reliability, construct, and concurrent validities of the self-appraisalquestionnaire: A tool for assessing violent and nonviolent recidivism.Criminal Justice and Behavior, 27(3), 356-374. However,schools are still considered safe since less than 1% of homicides andsuicides among the school-aged group occur at school or while traveling toor from school. It will also assist in thegeneration of future integrative studies which will further enhanceexisting knowledge of violent juvenile crime in the United States. Maltreatment of a child results in a 25%greater risk for future problems which include juvenile violence, substanceabuse, pregnancy, school problems and lack of achievement, and mentalillness. This discussion will includeeducation program outcomes, detoxification of the school environment,implementation of curfew programs, a look at neighborhood youth programs,participation in youth center activities, and the effectiveness ofelectronic monitoring of both drug offenders and alcohol abusers. 469; Ward, 2 , p. A. The Journal of Behavioral healthServices & Research, 27(2), 227-237. 7-8). (1997). StateBackgrounder No. 321-322). (1997). S., & Warheit,G. 219;Halpern, Barker, & Mollard, 2 , p. (1996). Dawkins, M. Labor markets, delinquency, and socialcontrol theory: An empirical assessment of the mediating process. Other risk factors include lack of activity, including a lack ofemployment. 119-12 ). Other theories to be reviewed will be the power-control theory andthe rational choice theory. Internal assets include ways to instill learning commitment,positive values, social competence, and personal identity. (1994). S., Bynum, T. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15(6), 631-65 . P., Barnoski, R., & Emanuel, I. R. E. M. Sociability beyond the family includes the school experience and peerassociations. G., & Loza-Famous, A. Social Education, 61(5), 244-249. In 1997, Clinton stated that there were5. How state and local officialscan combat violent juvenile crime. Participation in youth centeractivities: a sequential specificity approach. (1997). In spite of these statistics, even one homicide that isschool related results in concern. Crime and Delinquency, 41(2), 219-229. (1996). Criminal Justice and Behavior, 27(3), 292-311. Wootton, J., & Heck, R. Precursorsand consequences of membership in youth gangs. Avakame, E. 139). Further, attempts will be made to relate thesecauses to a particular theory. Boys who join gangs: A prospective study ofpredictors of first gang entry. Containment theory will also be discussed. (1999). Violent kids can we solve the problem? The literature is inconsistent regarding family influences onjuvenile crime, however the consensus remains regarding the importance ofcontinued investigation on the topic (Chambers, Power, Loucks, & Swanson,2 , p. (2 ).Federal activities addressing violence in schools. Loza, W., Dhaliwal, G., Kroner, D. A., Apospori, E., Gil, A. Child Welfare, 76(5), 665-716. The author concluded that reliable evidence isneeded before the results can be put into action (p. Drug use and violent crime amongadolescents. Childhood abuse is therefore recognized as a factor leading tojuvenile crime. This type of theory focuses on the socialfactors that influence both internal and external mechanisms found tocontrol an offender's behavior (Kelly, p. Petrosino (2 ) states that social scientists need more qualitystudies regarding the juvenile population to provide information for anevidence-based approach to solving the crime problem. Belknap, J., Holsinger, K., & Dunn, M. (2 ). What if juvenile crime explodes? Acomprehensive review of the literature regarding conflicting theories, willprovide useful information for a more integrated understanding of thecauses and treatment of violent juvenile crime. R., &Saucier, J. This review of the literature will provide a background of theproblem and demonstrate the need for a more comprehensive understanding ofthe situation, with an introduction to juvenile crime in the United States. International Journal ofOffender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 44(3), 293-311. MacLellan (2 ) reports that the juvenile violent crime indexincludes murder, nonnegligent manslaughter, rape, robbery, and aggravatedassault. From 1994 to 1998, 45 violent crimesresulting in death were found in school-associated settings. The relationship betweenstudents' sense of their school as a community and their involvement inproblem behaviors. Little Hoover Commission (LHC). A review of social bonding theory will demonstrate its focus on thelink between the individual and society. The Nation, 27 (1 ),1 . A relationship has been found between schools anddelinquent behavior. (1997). Forthis theory, when the individual has broken or weak bonds with society,they are considered to be predisposed to delinquency. 321). American Journal of Public Health, 87(12), 1997-2 1. P., Cho, M. Modeling the patriarchal factor in juveniledelinquency: Is there room for peers, church, and television? Causes of violence in children. Ploeger, M. Youth programs asalternative spaces to be: A study of neighborhood youth programs inChicago's West town. 5). (1997). Sprague, J., & Walker, H. A meta-analyticassessment of delinquency-related outcomes of alternative educationprograms. (1996). Curfew programs have beenused for a century to control social order and they are again being imposedto reduce juvenile crime. (1997). The relation of family functioning toadolescent psychological well-being, school adjustment, and problembehavior. R. B., Gordon, R. Developing delinquent youths:A reintegrative model for rehabilitation and a new role for the juvenilejustice system. Small Group Research, 28(3), 357-369. 659). T.V. 292-294). Currently, sports and other physical activities have become apopular method of treating different psychological problems (Parish-Plass &Lufi, 1997, p. Roe, K. Anassessment of the effectiveness of an intensive treatment program forseverely mentally disturbed juvenile offenders. M. Children, adolescents,and the media: Issues and solutions. J. Treatment of Juvenile Crime in the U.S. For example, research demonstrated that particulartypes of crimes were associated with populated urban areas. It alsoconflicts with social control theory which states that the youth willviolate the law if they can get away with it, thus the need for controls.Further, it conflicts with the social bonding theory which includedsymbolic interaction or the individual's role in the perception of asituation. 227; Sprague & Walker, 2 , p.367). Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24(2), 2 5-212. Genderdifferences explain differences in the offense. (1999). Treatment orrehabilitation of the offending youth will also examine the role of thejuvenile justice system and the death penalty. (2 ). Along with the school environment is the concern withteenage whereabouts during out-of-school hours. The Journal of SchoolHealth, 7 (4), 119-14 . From the 198 s to 1994, juvenile crime in the U.S. (2 ). P. 15). Juveniles are morelikely than adults to be both the perpetrator and the victim of a crime.When juvenile crime was at its peak in 1994, 16% of all homicides involveda juvenile. A large percentage of these offenders have been found to bechildren of abuse or neglect. Clinton, W. Found online at: Vega, W. Heilbrun, K., Brock, W., Waite, D., Lanier, A., et al. (2 ). Conflicting Theories An understanding of conflicting theories of juvenile crime in theU.S. R., & Slesinger, D. Williams, R., & Borduin, C. (1996). The power-control theory includes thepatriarchal factor in juvenile delinquency and crime. It is believed that those with a high degree of self-esteem will be more able to resist negative influences toward delinquency(Kelly, p. The POM theory views the mind as like a projector, and the offenderprojects his thoughts from the inside to the outer experience. Dukes, R. Barrios, L. References Arseneault, L., Tremblay, R. Combining physical activitywith a behavioral approach in the treatment of young boys with behaviordisorders. will assist with their integration. Report #127. A. Membership in delinquent youth gangs has grown and a 1998estimate is that over 65 , juveniles are gang members. Social control theory will be explored in this review. An investigation is needed to report literature findings andprovide information to facilitate the integrative process. J. A., & Emmer, E. Understandingincarcerated girls: The results of a focus group study. The conditioned thoughts are affected bythe situation. A., Baer, K., Bennett, G., Bergan, A., et al. CA: Author.Found online at: Lopez, V. Alternatively, symbolic interactioninvestigations have focused on the individual's definition and subjectiveinterpretation of the crime situation. Klein, K., Forehand, R., Armistead, L., & Long, P. Adolescent male offenders: agrounded theory study of cognition, emotion, and delinquent crime contexts. The relationship between the juvenile and their schoolexperience or sociability will be reviewed. M., Davis, B., & Hops, H. (1997).Delinquency during the transition to early adulthood: Family and parentingpredictors from early adolescence. SocialForces, 78(3), 1 41-1 66. S. Drugs wereblamed as were gangs and guns. Conseur, A., Rivara, F. U.S. Petrosino, A. Cockburn, A. (2 ). A., & King, R. (2 ). The Journal of GeneticPsychology, 158(4), 498-5 1. Statement on the effectiveness of anticrimemeasures. Most theories have tended to study criminal behavior from thesituational perspective, employing contextual cues, and ignoring thecognitive and emotional components. T. Youth violence: False fears and hard truths.Educational Leadership, 55(2), 45-47. Youth advocate: Public fear threatensgroundbreaking juvenile-justice law. (1997). It istheorized that adolescents join gangs because "birds of a feather flocktogether." Alternatively it is thought that teenagers join gangs and arethen socialized toward antisocial behaviors. Exploring drug and alcohol use andvariables related to success among DUI offenders under electronicmonitoring - some preliminary outcome results. Dilulio, J. Combining physical activity with behavioralapproaches for treatment of criminal behavior will be discussed. G., Zimmerman, R. Since an understanding of juvenile crime would be assisted bythis integration of the previous findings, it is reasonable to analyze andreport the current literature regarding conflicting theories on causes andtreatment. Dohrn, B. L. Hunter, J. (1997). Research regarding prevention of juvenile crime reveals conflictingresults. Ward, J. Drug and alcohol use and gang membership are associated with violentyouth crimes. M. A review of the literature regarding treatment of juvenile crime inthe U.S., consisting of violence reduction and prevention, mental healthconsiderations, and barriers to successful treatment, will be presented.These factors will be related to a particular theory when applicable. K. Although research demonstrates the prevalence of violent juvenilecrime, it presents multiple, inconclusive views regarding other aspectssuch as causes and treatment. (2 ). International Journalof Offender therapy and Comparative Criminology, 44(3), 395-397. Thoughtsare either unconditioned or conditioned. Measuringbarriers to help-seeking behavior in adolescents. C. Federal agencies actively address thisproblem of school violence (Barrios, Baer, Bennett, & Bergan, 2 , pp. (2 ). State responses toserious and violent juvenile crime. How can we respond effectively to juvenilecrime? Comparison of early and late start models ofdelinquency in adult offenders. Literature demonstrates the relationship between situationalcomponents and crime. Gang membership is also linked to delinquency, although additionalfactors such as gender, socioeconomic status, and race may contribute toits impact. Thistheoretical frame of reference may be used to help study and understandcauses and treatment of violent juvenile crime. (2 ). (1997). Sokol-Katz, J., Dunham, R., & Zimmerman, R. FBI LawEnforcement Bulletin, 69(3), 15-18. A critique of social bonding and controltheory of delinquency using the principles of psychology of mind.Adolescence, 31(122), 321-331. F., Klein, C., & Pranis, K. fewer murders annually in the U.S., than there were in 1993, and thiscould be attributed to efforts to give communities tools to rid themselvesof gangs, drugs, and guns. Hinds, M. ExceptionalChildren, 66(3), 367-379. Although help-seeking behavior for the emotionally disturbed andnondisturbed teenager has increased, most do not receive the help theyneed, and this increases risk for criminal involvement (Gilgun, Klein, &Pranis, 2 , p. L., Martinez, R. State practices that will be reviewed include targeted crimeprevention strategies. Childhood abuse was also thought to be a factor.Incarceration is viewed by some to be the answer, however effectiveness anda cost benefit ratio of this solution has not yet been determined(Crispell, 1997, p. (2 ). Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology,27(4), 277. A spending bill was about to be signedallocating over $1 million for the hiring of local prosecutors, probationofficers and others. Stasburger, V. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology,27(4), 261. Although the POM theory includes aspects from bothsituational and interactional or cognitive theories, it also conflicts witheach (Kelly, 1996, pp. A., Power, K. Studies provide information from individualtheoretical perspectives, however, a comprehensive overview regarding theseconflicting views, is lacking. Importance of the Study Lopez and Emmer (2 ) propose that a contemporary review of juvenilecriminal behavior needs to include an integrated approach (pp. Anotherexample of a situational factor was the unlocked automobile, which wouldlead to theft (Lopez & Emmer, 1 , p. The effects of youth employment on juvenile crimewill be investigated. The rationalchoice theory focuses on the study of specific events, with theindividual's evaluation of the costs and benefits related to the event, andthe decision to commit a specific crime (Lopez & Emmer, p. Rates of female juvenile offenders are less than those of males,however female arrests for violent offenses have increased 25% and ratesfor property crime have increased 21% (MacLellan, 2 , 1-4). A. Additional risk factorsthat are related to juvenile criminal recidivism will also be explored. P. A final consideration is the problem of drugoffense and its relationship to crime, and what to do about it (Courtright,Berg, & Mutchnick, 2 , p. The Heritage Foundation. A review of the Little Hoover Commission(1994) will provide an overview of academic studies and worldly experienceswith solutions regarding prevention of juvenile crime. States have begun scientific research projects withdifferent universities in the search of key and accurate informationregarding juvenile crime. Gang membershipexposes its members to the risk of incarceration, injury, and death. In 1995, 147,7 of these indexed violent crimes were committedby juveniles. Gender, age, and race are additional factors, since mostjuvenile offenders are males that begin violent activities by the age offifteen (MacLellan, p. Kelley, T. Wadsworth, T. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.