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Paper Abstract: Examines ways organizational case study helps people in training, types of studies, advantages & disadvantages, taxonomy of education, Paper Introduction: A THEORY FOR THE INTERPRETATION OF AN ORGANIZATIONAL CASE STUDY FOCUSING ON CORPORATE STRATEGY Introduction This research develops a theory for the interpretation of an organizational case study focusing on corporate strategy to lead to inferences about organizational strategic direction and recommendations for future strategy. The theory is developed within the contexts of (1) defining the case analysis approach to learning, (2) forms of case studies, (3) learning through case analysis, (4) advantages and disadvantages associated with learning through case analysis, and (5) preparing case studies. Defining the Case Analysis Approach to Learning The case analysis approach to learning confronts people in training with concrete situations that are characterized by Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. 3. The conditions of learning. The situation under study must be described as itactually exists and as it would likely be described by an independentobserver. (1992 August). From this premise, the assumption is that "in-depthobservations of the single case can provide insights into the class ofevents from which the case has been drawn" (Borg and Gall, 1996, p. Contemporary issues in educationalpsychology. This type of learning is characterized by theapplication of rules to previously encountered examples. References Bandura, A. The contentionis that self-guidance on the part of learners is best induced through fourcharacteristics of instruction, as follows: 1. Mayer, R. New York:Random House, pp. Educational research. C., & Veenendall, T. (1994). (1996). Data are collected forobservational case studies, on the other hand, primarily through the use ofparticipant observation. This case study form is encompassed in mostmanagement and public administration case studies; however, the historicalstudy of the organization is typically only one of the elements ofmanagement and public administration case studies. The operational problem solving objective would be particularlyapplicable in the conduct of managerial training. J. Case studies may also be designed to provide for group participationby learners. Borg, W. Case studiesmay also be short structured vignettes, or they may be long unstructurednarratives. Initially, in instruction, problem solving is applied topreviously encountered situations. Where pedagogyis the art and science of teaching children to learn, andragogy is the artand science of helping adults learn. The presumption beingthat "hands-on experience and decision-making" is the most effective formof learning (Churbuck, 1992, p. A. H., & Hilgard, E. Case studies must also be prepared with the learners in mind. Performance Improvement Quarterly,4(1), 43-54. The fourth characteristic is to provide learners withchallenge and variety. Informinggenerality and explaining uniqueness. E. 489). Managerial Auditing Journal, 7(3), 17-24. 2. Boston:Little, Brown and Company. Learning by example. This social learning theory posits that (1) observers (otherlearners) may acquire new patterns of behavior by watching the actions ofothers, (2) contact with other learners may both strengthen or weakeninhibitions toward previously learned responses, and (3) the actions of anindividual or individuals in a group may serve as cues in stimulating theperformance of other individuals in the same group. By contrast, level five requires anability to synthesize, or rebuild, what has been learned. M. (1992 June 8). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. New York: Random House, pp. Simon, Julian L. The fourth level requires that learners be able toanalyze what they have learned. Case studies must also be organized around a framework that enablesthe learner to pursue learning objectives in an efficient manner. International Journal of ComparativeSociology, 32, 154-171. L. Churbuck, D. As is true of thehistorical study of an organization form, however, the situational analysistypically is just one of the elements found in a management or publicadministration case study. (1997). Long unstructured narrative case studies are usually designedto identify problems, opportunities, or both (Dittenhofer, 1992). R. Learning occurs during case analysis through a variety of approaches thatinclude role playing, group discussion, improvisation, and individualassessment (Feinstein & Veenendall, 1992). Learning Through Case Analysis The case study method promotes a structured stimulus allowingunstructured responses. Through thisapproach, learners learn how to apply knowledge to classroom examples, andhow to transfer this knowledge to new situations, or problems. Learning outcomes related to intellectual skills predominate inlearning objectives. (1992 March). A. D., & Keeps, E. (7th ed.). The situational analysis case study form is also found in mostmanagement and public administration case studies. A. 488). Case analysis is intended tohelp one learn, and, thus, is suitable for the teaching of adults. The first characteristic is overlapping. Data collection forhistorical case studies of organizations depends "heavily upon interviewsand documents" (Borg and Gall, 1996, p. R., & Gall, M. Within the case analysis approach, the learner is asked todiagnose and analyze situations to determine why events occurred asdescribed and why the people involved in the situation behaved as they did. Dittenhofer(1992) argued that the case study approach to learning would be improvedthrough the incorporation of a cooperative, or team approach, to caseanalysis and learning. 489). Thischaracteristic means that the instructor must demonstrate to the learnersthat he or she is continuously aware of what is occurring among classmembers. F., Craig, R. Forms of Case Studies One form of case study is the historical study of an organization.Such case studies trace "the development of an organization over time"(Borg and Gall, 1996, p. Case studies also vary according to structure. The integration of course-related activities both within and outsidethe classroom is essential to the mastering by learners of course content.The case study approach to learning accomplishes this integration. Analysis of modeling processes. This level is vital in learning through case analysis. C. 276). Teaching internal auditing: The case-study method. Forbes, 149(12),13 -131. Overlappingimplies that several different learning objectives should be pursuedsimultaneously within a class. (3rd ed.). (1992). D. The clinical case study (a fourth form) isconcerned with understanding a particular condition or behavior associatedwith a type of individual (Borg and Gall, 1996). Bandura's (1997) social learning theory is applicable in thiscontext. Case analysis is used to provide learning for adults. A third case study formis the situational analysis through which "a particular event is studiedfrom the viewpoint of all the major participants" (Borg and Gall, 1996, p.489). The most common course-related activities that occuroutside of the classroom are reading, writing, and observation. Case study research in education: A qualitativeapproach. Thus,the instructor must determine both the mix of topic objectives that will bepursued and the sequence in which they will be pursued. Kreck, L. (1992 April). The mastery ofthese two levels of the taxonomy permits learners to transfer the conceptslearned to other situations and problems. Skill development in problem solving situations is particularlysignificant in this context. The theory is developed within the contexts of (1)defining the case analysis approach to learning, (2) forms of case studies,(3) learning through case analysis, (4) advantages and disadvantagesassociated with learning through case analysis, and (5) preparing casestudies. New York: Random House. Defining the Case Analysis Approach to Learning The case analysis approach to learning confronts people in trainingwith concrete situations that are characterized by temporal anddevelopmental dimensions wherein a complex set of behavioral determinantsare relevant. While the taxonomy offers the instructor a range of topic objectives,selection of objectives may not occur in a haphazard manner. (7th ed.). It has been argued that the case study method to learning providesincomplete information and inadequate judgment criteria. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant AdministrationQuarterly, 33(8), 69-7 , 74-77. C., & Mehrens, W. Gagne (1997) conceptualized problem solving as a process involvingselection from among a number of possible rules, and the application of theselected rule or rules in a unique sequence or combination that permitsproblem solution. 68-75. Thisprocess is facilitated by the case analysis approach to learning (Gagne,1997) Advantages and Disadvantages Associated With Learning Through Case Analysis A major advantage of the case analysis method of learning is thecapacity of this approach to improve human performance (Stolovitch & Keeps,1991). Selecting and writing casestudies for improving human performance. Observational casestudies (a second form) focus on "a group of individuals who interact overa period of time" (Borg and Gall, 1996, p. Thisoutline, in turn, helps the learner to categorize, pigeonhole, andinterrelate the various topics in the material being presented (Bower &Hilgard, 1997). Appropriate application must considerthe learning characteristics of individual learners as well as theinterests of the members of the broader society. Clinical case studies, by contrast, may involveformal testing, participant interviews, and documentation. The third level requires that learners be able to apply whatthey have learned. 277). (5th ed.). (1996). Bower, G. Level one involves the committing to memory facts, theories, andprinciples integral to the course, while the second level requires thatlearners be able to both understand what they have learned, and be able toexplain concepts involved in their own words, as opposed to memorizeddefinitions. Case studies, thus, should be prepared in a waythat both encourages and facilitates learner self-guidance. (1991 January/April). The preparation of effective case studies requires anobjective approach. In Clarizio, H. Learning through case analysis relies primarily onprecedence as opposed to theory (Churbuck, 1992). C., & Mehrens, W.A. Stolovitch, H. New York:Holt, Rinehart and Winston. These two levels of the taxonomyare particularly important in learning through case analysis. Ideas from learningtheory useful in education. Using the casestudy method to teach interpersonal communication. All ofthese activities are associated with case analysis. Dittenhofer, M. Afailure to approach adult learning through an andragogical process leads tosignificant problems in adult education. Feinstein, M. (1991). These outsideactivities if conducted effectively motivate learners, and prepare them fora superior learning experience within the classroom. Inquiry: CriticalThinking Across the Disciplines, 9(3), 11-14, 26. Case study preparation also requires a continual assessment of"what is important and what is unimportant" (Simon, 1994, p. The final level of the taxonomy, level six, requires an ability on thepart of the learner to critically evaluate what has been learned. Preparing Case Studies The case study approach to learning is the preferred approach when theobjective is to "obtain a wealth of detail about your subject" (Simon,1994, p. Educational psychology. Throughsuch an evaluation, learners are able to assess the value of the knowledgethey have obtained. Bradshaw, Y. (1997). Levels four and five of the taxonomy are significant in the process oflearning transfer. The second characteristic is instructor awareness. It is at this third level that the taxonomy becomesapplicable to the case analysis approach to learning. As learners gain proficiency in problemsolving abilities rule selection is applied to new situations. Onecontention is that improved learner motivation should be pursued through aclassroom management program in which learners become self-guiding in themanagement of instruction. (7th ed.).New York: Longman Publishers. The typical case analysis concludes with a prescriptive action recommendedby the learner (Merriam, 1992). The case analysis approach to learning isparticularly useful in the training of managers and administrators becauseof the reliance in real-life situations, problems, and incidents. The general description of the six levels of the taxonomyare memory, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, andevaluation. Contemporary issues in educational psychology. 488). 158-162. 489). The case study approach to learning provides several benefits when theapproach is applied appropriately. This approach allows learners to learn by reactingas they would if confronted with a similar situation in a work environment. In relation to case studies, challenge and varietydictates that learning objectives must be sufficiently difficult to requirelearner effort to accomplish, while remaining within the realm of learnercapabilities. (2nd ed.). Merriam, S. Basicconcepts must be mastered by learners before objectives involving analysis,synthesis, and evaluation may be introduced into the instruction. Gagne, R. Case study learning is based "on the premise that a case can belocated that is typical of many other cases, that is, the case is viewed asan example of a class of events or a group of individuals" (Borg and Gall,1996, p. Basic research methods in social science.(6th ed.). W., & Wallace, M. In Clarizio, H.F., Craig, R. Andragogy helps one tolearn, while pedagogy teaches one to learn. A Theory for the Interpretation of An organizational Case Study Focusing on Corporate Strategy Introduction This research develops a theory for the interpretation of anorganizational case study focusing on corporate strategy to lead toinferences about organizational strategic direction and recommendations forfuture strategy. The third characteristic is signal continuity and momentum.Signal continuity and momentum, with respect to case studies, requires thatsuch studies be well-prepared and designed to focus learner attention onthe desired learning objectives. An important aspect of case study preparation is the collection of therequired information (Borg and Gall, 1996, p. 17). Casestudies are particularly effective in performing the dual functions ofinforming through generality and explaining through uniqueness (Bradshaw &Wallace, 1991). Case studies involving situational analysesrequire the interviewing of all of the participants involved in theincident being studied. 13 ). A case study, therefore, is a "real-life situation that is intended toinstruct through the use of associated situational material" (Dittenhofer,1992, p. 4. The taxonomy is based onincreasing complexity and difficulty as one progresses upward through thevarious levels. Problemsolving is a major element of learning outcomes related to intellectualskills development, and may be accomplished through the case analysisapproach to learning. 489). Kreck (1992) suggested that case study learning may be improvedthrough adapting the format to accommodate operational problem solving as agoal. A taxonomy of education which is applicable to learning through caseanalysis includes six levels of objectives. (1997). Learners must be able to break thelearning down into its components. In essence, an advance organizer is asort of outline of materials to be presented in the case study. Such aframework is often referred to as an advance organizer to support thestable incorporation and retention of more detailed and differentiatedinformation to follow (Mayer, 1996). Operational problem solving: Overcoming aweakness of the case method. The two definitions highlight a majordifference between the two approaches to learning. Case studies may behighly structured and designed to solve technical problems. Manyexperts in education think that most learning actually occurs outside ofthe classroom. 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