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Essay Subject: Examines ethical, medical, social, economic & legal issues of active & passive euthanasia, roles of family, patient & physicians.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Examines ethical, medical, social, economic & legal issues of active & passive euthanasia, roles of family, patient & physicians. Paper Introduction: Euthanasia has become an important issue in the protection of human dignity. It has been in the news a great deal lately because of the crusade of the so-called "suicide doctor," Dr. Jack Kevorkian, who has "assisted" in some 17 or 18 suicides over the past few years, all of people who were facing some debilitating and painful degenerative disease. As medical science becomes more adept at prolonging life, but not necessarily at making that life valuable, euthanasia becomes an option to be considered by those who suffer, those who love them, and those who are charged with their care. Euthanasia comes from two Greek words meaning "good death" or "happy death," and the term refers to any action that brings a painless death to a person suffering from an injury, disease, or the ravages of age. Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. A contrast is provided bylooking at group accident and health claims, which actually dropped in 199 from the $455 million of 1989 to $439.7 million (Brostoff 3). But, like her son, she has never recanted" (Wicker18). . Works CitedBarnard, Christian. It is, of course, best when the patient has explicitlystated that he or she does not want life to be prolonged through "heroic"measures or suffering to be prolonged when there is no cure, and suchwishes should be in writing: Everyone wishes to die well. His mother refused to allow this and signed thenecessary consent forms for his treatment. 9, 1991), 452-453.Raffin, Thomas A., Joel N. Furthermore, such a move would help cut thenation's soaring health costs by eliminating expensive extended--andultimately fruitless--hospital care. People may avoid talking about thefinancial aspect, as if to do so is to place a mercenary rather than amerciful coloring on their desire to end the suffering, but it is an issuethat must be faced. He survived, but he ispermanently disabled--blind, with little sense of touch, and poor hearing.He has no fingers on his hands. For centuries, the Catholic Church has taught that this does not include the right to end one's own life (Manning 3 ).A recent article admits that modern technology sometimes prolongs life forno good reason and does to at great expense in terms of both money andsuffering, then states that the solution "is not physician-assisted, state-legitimized suicide. . . Physicians tend to assume that what patients and families want isresuscitation-life at all costs, but it seems that this is less and lesstrue as surveys show that public opinion is overwhelmingly on the side ofwithdrawing all "invasive" and "extraordinary" treatment in such cases("Euthanasia; what is the 'good death'?" 21). The effect of one partner's deterioration onthe other partner or on the family as a whole will vary from situation tosituation, but it is certain that there will be considerable stressinvolved, that the healthy partner will have to contend with his or her owninfirmities as well as being the bulwark for the other, and that the straincan have numerous consequences over time. Los Angeles: Hemlock Society, 1985.Neff, David. The only way to be reasonably certain of a good death is to plan, if at all possible, when one is still in good health (Humphry, Let Me Die 7). The courts and legislators have clearly beenreluctant to deal with this issue directly. "Euthanasia Should Not Be Based on Economic Factors." In Euthanasia, Neal Bernards (ed.), 138-143. New York: W.H. Quickly, without pain, without anguish and sparing loved ones a protracted deathbed watch. He himself insists that he should havebeen allowed to die. Hitler used euthanasia torid society of people he considered undesirable. Final Exit. . for over nine years after her respirator was removed in the belief that she would quickly expire. "Dial 119 for Murder." Commonweal (Aug. New York: Plenum Press, 1993.Cantor, Norman L. There is also a difference between letting nature take its course in a dying life and speeding the death of an individual by whatever means and for whatever purposes, no matter how well intended (Tada 181). 87-88. Active euthanasia should be legalized. The strain is greater on him because of theanger he feels that his children and grandchildren will not visit the frailwife in the hospital. It came swiftly, "a thief in the night." It came without significant resistance from medicine; little could be done to ward off impending death. Few of us like pain and suffering, and only those of us who are profoundly religious can find meaning in them (Tong 33).Modern medical science can and should work miracles for victims of diseaseand injury, and doctors use a variety of drugs and other treatments torelieve pain. In addition, the family itself will be suffering insympathy with the patient as well as by the onerousness of the decisionthat has to be made. Shurkin, and Wharton Sinkler III. . When Is It Right to Die? a comatose Karen Ann Quinlan was maintained on artificial nourishment. Or will the treatment just prolong a dying process already in motion? It is first of all a humaneway of ending life in the event of a terminal illness or debilitating andincurable injury. Recently, Pope John Paul II stated that we are creating a "culture ofdeath" by deciding that there are times when euthanasia is acceptable, andhe instead believes there is no time when "pulling the plug" is acceptable(Manning 22). . In his book Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide, MichaelManning, himself a medical doctor as well as a Catholic pastor, analyzesthe issues involved, beginning with a historical examination of how theissue has developed over the centuries and then turning to questions ofmedical necessity, morality, and law. Critics believe that an absolute position ignores thereality of human suffering for both the patient and his or her family andmakes both agree to allow suffering as something that has to be endured.In truth, the pope's position is not completely rigid, but he is not clearas to when he would be rigid and when he would not. Let Me Die Before I Wake. Famed surgeon Christian Barnard offers a view of the way a doctorshould view his or her primary responsibility when he writes: Yet I do not subscribe to the view that the aim of every doctor should be to conquer death. Freeman, 1989.Shertz, Edward and Robert J. . Letting Go: Death, Dying & the Law. Decisions that subordinate the humane dying of a terminally ill man or woman to the technological imperative, or personal or institutional self- interest--legal, financial, professional--are not consistent with Christian values and traditions (Tong 27).The purpose of medical science is to alleviate human suffering, not toprolong it, and the stricture against active euthanasia contributes to thecontinuation of suffering in many cases. Good Life, Good Death. Legal Frontiers of Death and Dying. Health care costs have been rising for some time, and an extendedstay in a hospital setting can cost many thousands of dollars, which seemsespecially costly when it is for a health problem that is terminal in time. In nonvoluntary active euthanasia, physicians (orfamily members or friends) make the decision to immediately end the livesof incompetent patients who seem to be in enormous pain or suffering. . "Euthanasia in the 199 s: Dying a "Good" Death." Current (July-August 1993), 27-33).Urofsky, Melvin I. Even when the physician can see that the patient is sufferingand understands the desire on the part of the patient to end it, he or shecan do nothing about it because of the legal structures against mercykilling, assisted suicide, or whatever specific name is given to the actthat would end the suffering. The family must face difficult decisions when a terminally illpatient involved. As science can keep people alive longer,it does so at a much higher cost just prior to death than was paid in thepast: In all of our prior history, death for those who reached adulthood came generally in what is now midlife. What is more relevant is to look at the problem from the instant of conception in the womb we are all dying (Barnard viii).The dilemma facing the medical profession mirrors the dilemma facing thelegal profession, which has also had a difficult time coping with the factof euthanasia and with the growing desire for some guidelines: There is indeed a line between assisting suicide and murder, but it is often hard to know where to draw it. 3.Burnell, George M. Blendon. Under other circumstances, the hurt of the illnesswould still be there, but the old man would have the support of his familyto help reduce the burden. Prentice-Hall: Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 198 .Brostoff, Steven, "AIDS-Related Life Insurance Claims Jumped in 199 ," National Underwriter (October 7, 1991), p. The healthier of the two willbecome the parent to the other in the relationship, and this may be a shiftfrom the pattern the relationship has always enjoyed (LaRue 33-37). Rather, it is the watchful and loving care of thedying by society, and the assurance of their comfort throughout the naturaland inevitable process of death" (Neff 452). Still, how many families can afford thesecosts and the lengthy hospitalization that may come at the end? Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1987.Dougherty, Charles J. New York: Charles Scribners' Sons, 1993.Wicker, Christine. Dax Cowart says that thereal issue is not the right to die, but the right to be made whole, whichoften is not possible. Baird and Stuart E. Buffalo, New York: Prometheus Books, 1989.Woolsey, Christine, "How to Live with the Costs as Workers Live with AIDS," Business Insurance (October 7, 1991), pp. Wicker offers the case of Dax Cowart as an argument for euthanasia.Dax was severely burned in a propane gas explosion and suffered throughmany painful treatments during which he repeatedly begged the doctors andnurses to let him die. Physicians are dedicated to promoting a bodyof ethics related to health issues, but in truth "ethics" is not as precisea term as many believe: Ethical decisions become relatively easy to reach if we start with a clear purpose on which we all agree. On the contrary, we are a culture very much enamored with life and almost obsessive about our physical and psychological well- being. There is a distinction between active euthanasia and passive euthanasia.Passive euthanasia refers to the withdrawal of "heroic" measures that keepa moribund person alive. It has been in the news a great deal lately because of thecrusade of the so-called "suicide doctor," Dr. Jack Kevorkian, who has"assisted" in some 17 or 18 suicides over the past few years, all of peoplewho were facing some debilitating and painful degenerative disease. It comes only after exhaustive medical interventions, some of which plainly increase the length and intensity of suffering and all of which increase costs to the health care system (Dougherty 153).While this fact is known, it has not been fully addressed by the healthcare system, the legal system, or society at large: The debate on the meaning of "futility" is still in its infancy: we have no clear sense of public values on these matters, no good figures on costs, no clear criteria for cost- benefit calculations, and no political process to allow physicians and lay people together to develop appropriate standards (Tong 32). Tong finds that the idea ofactive euthanasia, while distasteful to many and while being something mostAmericans state they would not choose, is also something most Americanstoday feel should be a matter of personal choice and should be judged on anindividual basis: The fact that so many people are interested in euthanasia is not necessarily a sign that this is a death-driven culture. Consider just the rise in costs associated with AIDS in recent years.AIDS is an expensive disease, and individual life insurance claims relatedto the disease reached $273.6 million in 199 , up from $221.7 million in1989. Certain questions are asked in the hospital situation to helpphysicians make ethical decisions regarding treatment or the withholding oftreatment, and these can serve in an analysis of issues of activeeuthanasia as well: Will a proposed treatment or procedure offer you a reasonable hope of benefit, an improved condition, and a better quality of life? His mother admits only that they should have stoppedthe pain: "She still grieves over her failure to demand more painmedication for him. New York: The Grove Press, 1984.Humphry, Derek. . Euthanasia is a difficult subject for Americans to consider, asindeed is any topic related to death and dying. This includes the right to own and dispose of private property and to make fundamental decisions about appropriate health care treatment, including refusal of overly burdensome treatment. If people can then interpret that purpose consistently in all situations, even in situations with a conflicting ethic, they can still feel that they are doing right (Raffin, Shurkin, and Sinkler 129).Yet, it is evident that the conflicting ethics in the decision regardingactive euthanasia are each so strong that the conflict may not be easilyresolved. At the moment that Ms. Quinlan died in June 1985, there were seventy-four comatose patients whose care was being subsidized by Medicaid in New Jersey (Cantor 84). The legalization of active euthanasia would also end thephysical and emotional suffering not only of the patient but also of theimmediate family members. Final Choices to Live or to Die. There is also an economic aspect to the issue, and many families aredevastated financially by having to maintain life support for a patient whohas no chance whatsoever of recovery. It typically follows a long pattern of chronic illness and decline. "The Common Good, Terminal Illness, and Euthanasia." Issues in Law & Medicine (Fall 1993), 151-166."Euthanasia; what is the 'good death'?" The Economist (July 2 , 1991), 21- 23.Humphry, Derek. The pope affirmsCatholic doctrine concerning the Christian View of Person and theimplications this has for medical decisions, as Manning indicates when hewrites, As we have seen, the Catholic Church supports the limited autonomy of the individual to make decisions and act to carry them out. As noted, among these patients may be incompetent adults whopreviously expressed the will to be killed under such circumstances as wellas infants who it is simply presumed would, if they could, express the samewish (Tong 31). Howmuch does the family or surviving member have to suffer in the face of thesuffering of a loved one when the suffering on both sides could becurtailed by an active euthanasia? San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1989.LaRue, Gerald A. The annual cost to taxpayers was approximately $32, . He says that euthanasia is better than forcingpeople to live with their pain, which in some cases can also mean creatinga more expensive situation as well: "If they're going to override apatient's wishes, then they ought to be there to help him override thedeficiencies that he's left with" (Wicker 2 -21). The factis that death has become very expensive for some patients because there hasbeen a change in how people die. In many cases, the patientwho is being kept alive is also suffering great pain and indignity, andthis cannot necessarily be measured objectively to an observer such as aphysician. . Are the burdens resulting from their treatment excessive, or are they reasonably bearable for the amount of benefit to be gained? Asmedical science becomes more adept at prolonging life, but not necessarilyat making that life valuable, euthanasia becomes an option to be consideredby those who suffer, those who love them, and those who are charged withtheir care. Suffering takes many forms, and the suffering of the family of thepatient should not be ignored. (Burnell 75).Essentially, though, the conflict ultimately has to be decided withoutclear guides because every case is different, but the nature of the issueto be decided should be made more clear: There is a difference between helping a person live all the life he is entitled to and prolonging the act of dying. Although treatment costs for an AIDS patient can be as high as$1 , , most cases can be held to $3 , to $6 , with good casemanagement (Woolsey 87-88). Active euthanasia means taking a positive actionthat leads directly to the death of another person, and active euthanasiais considered murder in most legal and religious systems (Urofsky 15). San Francisco: Harper, 1992Tong, Rosemarie. As noted, medical science today can prolong life but may not be ableto restore full functioning to the sufferer, in which case the humansuffering involved is also being prolonged: When technology becomes an end in itself, unduly prolonging the dying process, it creates a paradox in which human dignity may be undermined and where the goals of treatment are distorted to accommodate the imperatives of technology. Shertz and Blendon note that surveys showthat half of those who say they would want euthanasia would accept death soas to not burden their families and not, as is widely supposed, becausethey had pain (Shertz and Blendon 59 ). Yet hundreds of people in America still do help their loved ones to die every year (Humphry, Final Exit 3 ). Now death is generally an event of old age. Euthanasia comes from two Greek words meaning "good death" or"happy death," and the term refers to any action that brings a painlessdeath to a person suffering from an injury, disease, or the ravages of age. The issue raised is, who would be next? Euthanasia and Religion. The law holds that a person who takes an active role in causing another person's death has committed homicide (Urofsky 119).This has not stopped the practice, and it has not stopped the confusion inindividual cases where there is some uncertainty as to the role of thefriend or family member. One writer cites the case of an 87 year-old manwhose 85 year-old wife is comatose from Alzheimer's. "Sentenced to Life." In Euthanasia: The Moral Issues: Contemporary Issues in Philosophy, Robert M. The real issue, however, is not what doctors can do but howmuch we are going to spend on medical treatments. Intensive Care. Manning explores the Roman Catholicpoint of view while also considering other arguments that have been raised,and he concludes that society must maintain its prohibition on legalizedeuthanasia and physician-assisted suicide in the United States. "Euthanasia: should the public decide?" JAMA (February 3, 1993), 59-591.Tada, Koni Eareckson. Yet, it is a veryimportant issue that needs to be explored more profoundly, considered moredeeply, and codified in a way that avoids the murky areas faced by dyingpeople and their families and friends today. The costs accrue not only to the family but also toinsurance companies, hospitals, and society at large: . Euthanasia would ridsociety of "the handicapped, the retarded, the chronically ill, and thepoor" (Johnson 142). Often, they will have discussed the matter beforehand.More often, they will have not, and the family is still the decision-makingunit faced with the need to balance the suffering of the patient with thepossibility of relief. Group life claims increased even more dramatically, from $253million in 1989 to $374.8 million in 199 . Often the effect the partner's deterioration has on the other partnerdepends on the degree of assistance the caretaker can get from family,community, and friends. Another issue raised by opponents is the slippery-slope argument,noting that there is always a danger of abuse. He spends each day byher bed talking softly to her, though long before her hospitalization shehad ceased to recognize him. Rosenaum (eds.), 15-22. More and more Americans today areseeking the right to terminate life when it is no longer livable, as isseen in the success of books like Final Exit, which offers a rationale foractive euthanasia and suicide: It is against the law everywhere to assist a suicide--no matter what the reason. Euthanasia has become an important issue in the protection of humandignity. Will the treatment offer relief of suffering or alleviate pain? Andsince physicians are more and more wary of making any such decision thatwill leave them open to legal action, the process devolves to the family.In cases where a physician is himself a family member of a sufferer, thereis evidence that the physician reacts more as a family member than aphysician: Sometimes physicians become frustrated in dealing with their colleagues and take over the care of their loved ones in an attempt to reduce their suffering (Burnell 119). Eugene, Oregon: The Hemlock Society, 1991.Johnson, Dana E. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.