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Essay Subject: Examines background, origins, mandates, operations, goals & accomplishments of UN missions in Nicaragua & El Salvador in 1990s.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Examines background, origins, mandates, operations, goals & accomplishments of UN missions in Nicaragua & El Salvador in 1990s. Paper Introduction: UN PEACEKEEPING MISSIONS IN CENTRAL AMERICA This research paper examines the origins, mandates, operations and accomplishments of the first peacekeeping missions of the United Nations (UN) in Central America, the UN Observer Group in Central America, (ONUCA) 1989-1991 and the UN Observer Mission in El Salvador (ONUSAL) 1991-1995. Introduction As the Cold War wound down and especially after it ended, ethno-religious, social and other civil conflicts broke out and intensified in many areas of the world. These conflicts placed increasing demands on the UN to carry out various kinds of peacekeeping missions for which it often was ill-prepared structurally, financially and in other ways. In Nicaragua and El Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. William J. Martin's Press, 1993), 39.[5]William J. A combination of public complaints by theSecretary-General and quiet behind the scenes diplomatic pressures by theUnited States are apparently what brought the government of PresidentAlfredo Christiani around and broke the logjam to finalization of the peaceprocess. . Durch, "Introduction," in The Evolution of UN Peacekeeping:Case Studies and Comparative Analysis, ed. Smith and William J. Although the UN General Assembly supportedEsquipulas II, CIVS, which was composed of UN, OAS, Contadora, and localgovernment representatives, was cumbersome and ran afoul of resistance byvarious parties to international verification activities. . In Central America, the UN observed sensible limits in playingthe role of a midwife during a period of transition to normal politics andthe first real experiments in broad-based democratic politics. However, in retrospect harsh criticismof the UN in this area is not justified, because the enforcement of arms'embargos is practically impossible without the full cooperation of theinternal security forces of the nations involved, which was lacking, andwhat little ONUCA did helped engender confidence in its neutrality. ONUCA played an important confidence buildingrole. William J. At termination, for example, member states owed nearly $9million with respect to ONUCA in 1992. ONUSAL's mandates also broadened over time as the peace process in ElSalvador gathered momentum. . The Sandinistagovernment was regarded by the administration of Ronald Reagan as involvedwith efforts by Fidel Castro's Cuba with Soviet support to subvert othergovernments in Central America. Martin's Press, 1993), 438. Durch, "UN Observer Group in CentralAmerica," in The Evolution of UN Peacekeeping: Case Studies and ComparativeAnalysis, ed. By 1988, the Contras and theSandinista government had negotiated a cease-fire. Durch, 436-462. Martin's Press, 1993. These costs, of course, are a smallfraction of the continuing costs of such conflicts. These"signs of the reappearance of some disturbing features of El Salvador'spast" were on the record handled well by the mission which exercised steadypressure on both parties, especially the government, to live up to itscommitments, but which referred to the Secretary General issues 'too hot'to be handled at a local level. ONUSAL undertook very ambitious tasks in El Salvador which wereincidental, perhaps even critical to the peace process, but whichnevertheless entailed some aspects of 'nation-building.' Time and timeagain, negotiations between the government and FMLN or implementation ofexisting accords were impeded by lack of sufficient progress in such areasas adoption of legislation, implementation of land reforms, removal of thejudiciary from political influence, dismissal of military officers taintedwith human rights violations and the training and staffing of the new civilpolice. Durch (New York: St.Martin's Press, 1993), 1. [4]William J. Likewise, ONUCA's work in demobilizing the Contras proceeded veryslowly and at first ineffectively. . In January 1992, its mandate wasterminated and its remaining functions, personnel and assets merged intoONUSAL. William J.Durch, 39-58. Durch, 1-14. According to Durch, "ittakes money to keep the peace, and money for peacekeeping is in chronicallyshort supply."[4] Evaluation of UN's Performance and ConclusionSince 1989, the UN has performed more peacekeeping missions than itpreviously performed (13) since its inception. generallysupported the 45 year Somoza family dictatorship until shortly before itwas overthrown by the Sandinista revolution in July 1979. . with army-guerrilla clashes in thecountryside and right-wing death squads operating in the cities."[1] TheUnited States supported the El Salvador government in its struggle with theFrente Faribundo Marti para la Liberacion Nacional (FMLN), but civil warcontinued into the early 9 s. Durch, William J. William J. Afterthey reached agreement on all substantive aspects of the peace processunder the Peace Agreement signed in Mexico City in January 1992, theSecurity Council enlarged ONUSAL's mandate to include verification of acease-fire, the separation of forces, terminating FMLN as a fighting force,and the reintegration of its members into Salvadoran society. InDecember 1989 the five Central American presidents issued the San IsidroDeclaration which in effect invited the UN to expand ONUCA's mandate toinclude verification of the cease-fire and demobilization of the Contras,which was done in March 199 . "Paying The Tab: Financial Crises." In The Evolutionof UN Peacekeeping: Case Studies and Comparative Analysis, ed. The Arias Plan which was incorporated in anAgreement among five Central American presidents (Costa Rica, El Salvador,Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua) known as Esquipulas II committed thosefive states to grant amnesty to political prisoners and to establishnational reconciliation commissions; arrange a cease-fire; supportdemocracy and free and fair elections in their countries; end cross-bordersupport for insurrections; disarm rebels; cope with refugees and displacedpersons; cooperate on economic development; and set up an internationalobserver and verification commission (CIVS). Operations of ONUCA and ONUSAL ONUCA served primarily to verifiy, monitor and help implementagreements between the parties for ending the war between the Government ofNicaragua and the Contras. A taskthe UN had never performed before, "it proved quite difficult to getstarted."[3] Mutual distrust was the basic problem. Its initialmandate was confined to monitoring cross-border infiltration of arms. From 1982 until the election of VioletaChamorro as President in 199 , the United States provided substantialmilitary and economic aid to the non-communist Nicaraguan Resistance orContra movement. Martin's Press,1993. [6]Brian D. Some of these difficulties were reflected in the ONUCAand ONUSAL peacekeeping operations but, overall, these operations werepronounced successes. William J. In retrospect, ONUCA was inadequately staffed in 1989-199 for itsborder inspection, cross-border arms flow monitoring function. "United Nations Observer Mission in El Salvador (ONUSAL)." BlueHelmets (n.p.p.: n. It ended aid tothem in 1989. It started with a small 18 man survey team and built up tohundreds of personnel drawn from twelve nations. New York: St. During 1989-1991, ONUCA, despite numerous obstacles and a hesitant beginning, played animportant role in verifying a cease-fire, separating combatants anddemobilizing the Nicaraguan Resistance or Contras. Its first function in 1989-199 was "to monitorborder regions to verify states' compliance with obligations to cease allassistance to regional insurgent forces."[2] This was a limited operation,involving the dispatch of mobile patrols on land, by helicopters and laterpatrol boats. The U.S. The incremental expansion of ONUSAL's mandate led to an expansion ofits personnel to 1, 98, including 38 MOs, in January 1992 and to a neworganizational structure under which separate Military Observer, HumanRights and Electoral Divisions were established. References Durch, William J. Durch (New York: St. (Ed.). Durch (New York: St. As noted, planning and implementation, including budgeting, werehandicapped in both the Nicaraguan and El Salvador missions, by a lack ofclarity in the original mandates and their later expansion or 'missioncreep.' However, this was inevitable in the early stages in both countriesbecause it took awhile for the United States in particular to reverse itsprevious one-sided pattern of support and for local politics and militarystalemates on the ground to jell in favor of broader peace settlements andother internal reforms. The operation involved 26 Military Observers (MOs) and total manpower, including troops in the field,at its peak of 1,195 against an original plan of 625. New York: St. ONUSAL's functions in El Salvador turned out to be much broader thanONUCA's in Nicaragua. In its first peacekeeping venture in the Western Hemisphere, the UNthrough its ONUCA and ONUSAL missions performed a useful and indeedindispensable role in bringing long-standing civil conflicts to an end andhelping to give Nicaragua and El Salvador to chance to build more equitableand stable democratic societies. Fieldheadquarters of the Force Commander were in Tegucigalpa, Honduras with fiveliaison offices and 18 verification centers. ONUCA and ONUSAL MandatesONUCA's mandates progressively broadened because of the confluence overtime of three factors: regional initiatives, diminished great powerconflict and political changes in Nicaragua. Military officers from a number of nations, includingCanada, Brazil, Ecuador, Spain and Venezuela, participated in ONUSAL'swork. ."assemblage of the full team for the first time only . Much of the credit is due ONUSAL "for having helped theSalvadorians to take giant strides away from a violent and closedsociety."[7] Elections, even reasonably fair ones, are only one step toward thestabilization of nations previously wracked by deep social conflict andcivil war. Durch (New York: St. [2]William L. Its next task, thedemobilization of the Contras, was even more difficult and costly. Between 1984 and 1987, theContadora Group (Mexico, Panama, Colombia and Venezuela) attempted to beginthe peace process in Nicaragua. These conflicts placed increasing demands on theUN to carry out various kinds of peacekeeping missions for which it oftenwas ill-prepared structurally, financially and in other ways. Smith and Durch pointed out otherdeficiencies in ONUCA's mission: "inadequate advance planning" . Smith and William L. Police officials from Spain, France and Italy, among others, helpedtrain the PNC. Martin's Press, 1993), 452. "UN Observer Group in CentralAmerica." In The Evolution of UN Peacekeeping: Case Studies and ComparativeAnalysis, ed. The mandate was extended several times to permit ONUCAto complete its Nicaraguan tasks. Durch. [7]"United Nations Observer Mission in El Salvador (ONUSAL)," BlueHelmets (n.p.p.: n.p., n.d.p.), 444. The result in El Salvador throughout the 198 swas "a bloody civil war . After the reorganizationof the UN Secretariat in 1992, ONUSAL came under the new PeacekeepingOffice in New York. Durch, "UN Observer Group in CentralAmerica," in The Evolution of UN Peacekeeping Case Studies and ComparativeAnalysis, ed. The United States waslosing interest in the Contras as the Cold War wound down. [3]Brian D. Durch, "Getting Involved: The Political-Military Context,"in The Evolution of UN Peacekeeping Case Studies and Comparative Analysis,ed. The danger was always present that ONUSAL would out of impatienceor frustration arrogate to itself more of such functions than it could besustained by local authorities once the UN mission was completed. The total cost of ONUCA's operations was about $87 millionand of ONUSAL's about $1 7 million. UN PEACEKEEPING MISSIONS IN CENTRAL AMERICA This research paper examines the origins, mandates, operations andaccomplishments of the first peacekeeping missions of the United Nations(UN) in Central America, the UN Observer Group in Central America, (ONUCA)1989-1991 and the UN Observer Mission in El Salvador (ONUSAL) 1991-1995. Martin's Press, 1993. The initial mandate ofONUSAL, approved by the Security Council in May 199 , was to verify suchcompliance and to monitor other peace agreements between the parties. Smith, Brian, and William J. Introduction As the Cold War wound down and especially after it ended, ethno-religious, social and other civil conflicts broke out and intensified inmany areas of the world. The demobilization and disarming of the Contras wasa first ever mission for the UN, good practice for its much later task of asimilar nature in Cambodia. ONUSALfunctioned under this mandate, with several extensions of time, until itsoperations were wound down in April 1995. Background Since Spanish colonial times, Nicaragua has been plagued by turbulentpolitical struggles, tyrannical rule, a primitive agricultural economy andgreat inequalities of wealth. Durch (New York: St. Demobilization proceeded slowlyuntil the Managua Declaration of May 199 under which the Contras agreed toa short time table. Organizationally, ONUCA was directed by the Office of SpecialPolitical Affairs in the Secretary-General's Office in New York. Under even moredemanding circumstances, ONUSAL performed similar tasks in El Salvadorduring 1991-1995 and also facilitated a meaningful political dialoguebetween the Salvadorian government and guerrilla forces and the adoption ofthe internal reforms needed to begin a process of reconciliation of formerenemies. begun to outstrip thesupply," but the nature and complexity of many of those missions haschanged as well.[5] The UN has been severely criticized for the slow andcumbersome nature of its decision-making and command and controlstructures, which are ill-suited to meet contingencies of the type whichhave been encountered in conflicts in areas such as Somalia and Bosnia.Personnel and equipment shortages have been common and funding has been aperennial problem. The Evolution of UN Peacekeeping: CaseStudies and Comparative Analysis. The San Jose Agreement called for thecreation of a United Nations mission to investigate human rights abuses inEl Salvador and to verify compliance by both parties with recognizedinternational human rights laws and standards. Again, it served to prod the partiesinto further cooperation and to build a basis for further cooperation.ONUCA served a useful role, as ONUSAL did later in El Salvador, inidentifying barriers to progress, such as the failures of the Nicaraguanand Salvadorian governments to provide sufficient land and other resourcesto resettle the Contras and FMLN guerrilla forces so that they wereproperly incentivized to demobilize. Financing. ONUCAL had found it difficult to monitor theflow of arms and personnel across the Nicaragua-El Salvador border in 1989-1991 because of continued fighting and lack of cooperation by the Contrasand FMLN. William J. The United States in pursuit of dollardiplomacy and to prevent instability in a country near the Panama Canalintervened militarily in Nicaragua in 1912 and 1927. Very little progress was made until the Sandinistas were voted out ofpower in February 199 . It performed all the same tasks as ONUCA did, but wasalso heavily involved in efforts to reform the Salvadoran armed forces,police and judiciary, to investigate human rights violations and monitorprogress, including the establishment of an international Commission on theTruth, and to prepare for and to monitor the electoral process whichresulted in reasonably free and fair elections there in the spring of 1994.Its operations were impeded by the off and on again nature of negotiations,the discovery in May 1993 of a large clandestine arms cache of FMLN, footdragging by the Salvadorian government on ridding its army of officersidentified as human rights violators and the formation of a national civilpolice force (PNC) and political killings in the period leading up to theelections. . William J. The SecurityCouncil set up ONUCA in November 1989 but its deployment and clarificationof its mandate was delayed by continued fighting in Nicaragua. Durch (New York: St. Eventually, after manydelays, 19,614 Contras in Nicaragua and 2,759 in Honduras were disarmedover a period of two years. Durch, William J. Between September 1989 and the reaching of the July 199 San JoseAgreement on Human Rights, the government of El Salvador and FMLNnegotiated under the auspices of the UN Secretary-General the broadoutlines of a peace agreement. p., n.d.p.).----------------------- [1]Brian Smith and William J. Further expansions of that mandate occurredin 199 to include monitoring the cease-fire and establishing securityzones to effect the separation of forces. Martin's Press, 1993), 457. Martin's Press, 1993), 29. "Introduction." In The Evolution of UN Peacekeeping:Case Studies and Comparative Analysis, ed. Although El Salvador had avoided direct foreign interventions, it,too, suffered from misrule, economic exploitation and social misery. Durch, "UN Observer Group in CentralAmerica," The Evolution of UN Peacekeeping Case Studies and ComparativeAnalysis, ed. New York: St. Thosetensions were aggravated by global economic problems of the 197 s,recessions in the developed world, high crude oil prices and low prices forcommodity-exporting nations. in the field"and "the UN's antiquated supply system and lack of either material orpersonnel reserves."[6] ONUCA and ONUSAL benefitted from the high caliberof officers supplied by contributing nations at command and lower levels. William L. NewYork: St. The terrainwas difficult, but earlier use of more helicopters and combined air-seapatrols would have been advisable. Martin's Press, 1993. Durch, "Paying the Tab: Financial Crises," in TheEvolution of UN Peacekeeping: Case Studies and Comparative Analysis, ed.William J. For such peacekeeping operations, theUN depends on contributions from Member States over and above their annualdues which are assessed for each such operation, and typically areunderfunded. In Nicaraguaand El Salvador, the cessation of outside military assistance to indigenousrevolutionaries, regional initiatives, exhaustion of local combatants andother developments provided openings for the beginning of peace processes,involving the contending forces and groups in each society. . Not only [has] "the demandfor UN peacekeeping missions since early 1992 . If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.