EDUCATIONAL INCLUSION.   Term Paper ID:24671 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Examines strategies, techniques, effectiveness & legislation covering teaching of disabled/handicapped students in regular schools.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Examines strategies, techniques, effectiveness & legislation covering teaching of disabled/handicapped students in regular schools. Paper Introduction: INCLUSION: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the literature on inclusion, a term that can be simply defined as the delivery of instruction to disabled/handicapped students in the regular school (Stainback, Stainback, East & Sapon-Shevin, 1994). The overview includes discussion of research and theory related to: the least restrictive environment (LRE) mandate, methods of determining the LRE for each child; strategies and techniques used by special education teachers, resource specialists and other relevant professionals for meeting the educational needs of "included" students (commonly referred to as mainstreamed students); the controversy involving simple versus full inclusion; California law as it relates to inclusion; and the Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. Louis: Mosby Year Book. There are several pros and cons associated with full versus simpleinclusion. & Turnbull, H.R. Accelerated learning in theresource room. Summary This paper examined the existing research and theory on inclusion.The presented overview of this literature began with a discussion of theleast restrictive environment and the cascade of services and accompanyingplacements commonly associated with the needs of disabled students. Special Education Division of the California Department of Education.(1997). Academic Therapy, 21(1), 71-76. The IEP model requires the development of an IEP Committee commonlyconsisting of teachers, parents, experts in the field and relevant others). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 26(3), 337-346. A team-based junior highinclusion program: Parent perceptions and feedback. The impact of full inclusion was more favorable if childrenreceived social encouragement, if a full range of placement options wereavailable, and if teachers and parents supported the program. The degree of positiveeffects depended on the educational conditions under which these programswere offered. Severaladministrators (N=77) stated that they had implemented full inclusion inclasses and had found it satisfactory to all participants. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 29(1), 8-1 . The first point isthat there has not been much research examining for these effects. & Mallick, K. Gibb, Young and Allred (1997) examined parental perceptions andattitudes following the first year of a junior high inclusion pilot programbased on teacher and student collaborative teams. The parents of 17students with learning disabilities and one student with behavior disorderswere interviewed. The challenge of inclusion: Points well-takenand related challenges. Mental retardation: Alife cycle approach (5th ed.) St. Vaughn, Elbaum and Schumm (1996) presented data on the socialfunctioning (i.e., the degree of peer acceptance, self-concept, loneliness,and social alienation) of 64 urban students in three second, third andfourth grade inclusive classrooms. (197 ). Analyses of data were said to show that most educators agreed thatfull inclusion programs improved these children's academic achievement,social adjustment, and self-confidence/esteem. There has been a good deal of research investigatingthe instructional strategies and techniques used by special educators,resource specialists and other relevant professionals to meet theeducational needs of these students. (1995). There wereindications that, at least to some extent, inclusion may increase students'self-esteem; however, it was noted that there is not much research in thearea and that the the studies that do exist are more qualitative or quasi-experimental than they are controlled, rigorous studies. Accelerated learning strategies are also often used in resourcerooms. Acommentary on inclusion and the development of a positive self-identity bypeople with disabilities. (1996). (1997). The effects ofinclusion on the social functioning of students with learning disabilities.Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29(6), 598-6 8.----------------------- 2 The authors furtherstate that the degree of commitment of professionals to such practices isquestionable. & Allred, K. The Learning Print: A blueprint for practicein the noncategorical special class. Hay, G.H, Courson, F.H. Disabilityand Society, 11(1), 83-89. (199 ). Students with higher IQs were, however, more reading delayed. Special education as developmental capital.Exceptional Children, 37, 229-237. (1996). Mesibov, G.B. This model is said to be part of the move from a categorical to anoncategorical remedial format, providing a shift away from intrusivepedagogy, psychometrics, and exclusion, and toward the creation of aneffective, salutary instructional environment. & Hardman, M.L. Journal of Early Intervention, 19(3), 2 -2 2. Strain states that before implementation shouldeven be considered there is a need to thoroughly interpreting the intent ofresearch on integration issues, and to evaluate the extreme range ofopinions among professionals on the topic. Some of these strategies have been discussed by Bernadette (1996) whostates that team teaching (special education teacher co-teachers withregular teacher and/or appropriate others) tends to be especiallyeffective. Educational conditions related tosuccessful full inclusion programs involving deaf/hard of hearing children.American Annals of the Deaf, 14 (5), 396-4 1. The final section of the study examined the literature on the effectsof inclusion on disabled/handicapped students' self-esteem. Fullwood, H., Pankake, A. In terms of those advocating full inclusion, they point outthat the key difference between disabled children is not the setting butthe degree of services required; and state that if those services could beprovided, there should be no reason why the child cannot be placed in theregular school with some modifications in instructional methods (Hay,Courson, & Cipolla, 1997). Learning disabled students, however, did not differ onratings of loneliness, and they demonstrated increases in the number ofwithin-class reciprocal friendships from fall to spring. These techniques,according to the authors, are said to work especially well with learningdisabled students. These methods can be used either inthe regular classroom setting or in special education settings like theresource room. For example, Afzali-Nomani (1995) collected survey data from48 educators involved in full inclusion programs for deaf and hard ofhearing children. Simple Versus Full Inclusion According to Borthwick-Duffy, Palmer and Lane (1996), simpleinclusion is wedded to the notion of a continuum of placement optionsdepending on the children's degree of need for physical/medical and otherservices associated with his/her disability. According to Drew, Logan and Hardman (1994), there is aset model used by the educational system to determine that setting that isthe least restrictive environment for a given student with disabilities;this is the Individualized Educational Program or IEP model. Remedial and SpecialEducation, 18(4), 243-249. Journal ofBehavioral Education, 6(3), 311-329. Stainback, S., Stainback, W., East, K. Psychological Reports, 78(2), 617-618. Bagley, C. It is suggested by Strain thatplacement-driven calls for inclusion and the often-related but undefinedsupport for inclusion make sound teaching practices blasphemous, and suchpractices may inadvertently deny special needs children their bestopportunities to learn. Exceptional Children, 6 (6), 486-49 . Applegate and Hamm (1985) described four accelerated learningtechniques (adjusting arousal level, imagery, teacher suggestion, andmusic) that address many student needs and have been found to provide apositive influence on all areas of student progress. Deno, E. Bernadette, A. Findings of the study indicated that learning disabled students wereless well liked and more frequently rejected than regular students.Although students' overall self-worth did not differ by achievement group,the learning disabled students demonstrated significantly lower academicself-concept scores. Towards achievement of reading skillpotential through peer tutoring in mainstreamed 13-year-olds. The strategies/techniques discussedincluded: team teaching, peer-tutoring, the noncategorial remedial format;and the use of accelerated learning techniques. Thesecond point is that of the research that has been accomplished, much of itconsists merely of the collection of perceptual data rather than objective,quantitative measures of children's self-esteem. Therefore, findingsshould be considered to be, at best, preliminary in nature. Social functioning measures werecollected for 16 students identified as learning disabled (LD), 27 studentsidentified as low achieving, and 21 students identified as average/highachieving; all measures were collected at both the beginning and end of theschool year. Applegate, R.L. There are two points that need to be noted regarding the literatureon the effects of inclusion on students' self-esteem. Strain, P.S. D'Annunzio, A. Level III - Part-time special classes Level IV - Full-time special classes Level V - Special stations Level VI - Homebound Level VII - Instruction in hospital or home; or the delivery of "noneducational services including medical and welfare care and supervision. According to Mesibov and Shea(1996), the problem here is that there has been very little empiricalevidence for these claims; moreover, the authors state that the empiricalresearch grows especially sparse for some disabled groups such as autisticchildren. & Schumm, J.S. & Sapon-Shevin, M. Full inclusion, on the otherhand, holds that almost all disabled students, regardless of the continuumof services they require, should be placed in regular schools. Least Restrictive Environment The passage of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (PublicLaw 94-142) in 1975 was the culmination of years of litigation regardingdiscrimination against handicapped children in this nation's schools. INCLUSION: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the literatureon inclusion, a term that can be simply defined as the delivery ofinstruction to disabled/handicapped students in the regular school(Stainback, Stainback, East & Sapon-Shevin, 1994). However, if one or more committeemembers request it, revision can occur more frequently. References Afzali-Nomani, E. This method is said to allow teachers to work collarborativelynot only with respect to instruction but also in terms of assessingstudents skills and interests. Another wayof saying this is that full inclusion involves more than the mainstreamingof students with disabilities in a specific social or academic area, butinvolves the full-time placement of students with mild, moderate, or severedisabilities in neighborhood schools. Thiswas said to suggest that regular teachers of mainstreamed children may besatisfied with "average" rather than "optimal" scholastic attainment indisabled children. Turnbull and Turbiville (1995) have argued against full inclusionnoting that there has been a failure of the field over the last 2 years toempirically document successful inclusive practices. (1994). California Legislation Related To Inclusion The Special Education Division of the California State Department ofEducation (1997) lists the scores of laws passed by the state thatspecifically relate to inclusion. Some authors, such as Strain (1995), do not argue with full inclusionso much as they are wary of the rush of advocates to make sure that it isimmediately implemented. Some special education teachers/resource specialists have used peer-tutoring as a means of not only facilitating educational performance ofdisabled students but also helping them to develop and strengthenfriendships with other students. (1996). Findings indicated that parents perceived the program asstrengthening their children's self-esteem. Effects of Inclusion on Handicapped Students' Self-Concept And Self-Esteem One of the primary reasons for inclusive practices has been the claimthat mainstreaming disabled children into regular schools will elevatetheir self-esteem. & Turbiville, V.P. (1995). Administrators' viewof full inclusion in public education. (1994). D'Annunzio (1994) discussed a teaching model, the Learning Print, foruse with elementary school children in noncategorical special classsettings. & Fournet, G. Also, teachers work together to gather materials for students andintegrate them into the regular curriculum. Working together, the committee develops a written document containing:(1) the child's present levels of educational performance; (2) the annualgoals and short-term instructional objectives in each area requiringspecially designed instruction; (3) the specific educational services to beprovided and the extent to which the child will be able to participate inregular education programs; (4) the projected date for the beginning andthe anticipated duration of such services; (5) appropriate objectivecriteria and evaluation procedures; and (6) schedules for determining, atleast on an annual basis, whether the instructional objectives are beingmet. Gibb, G.S., Young, J.R. Strategies and Techniques Used For Included Students Depending upon their IEPs, disabled/handicapped students will receiveeither regular classes only or some mixture of regular and specialeducation classes. Why must inclusion be sucha challenge? It is also suggested that when disabled children are thesubject of so much concern by the classroom teacher, this concern spillsover onto the other classroom children, with the result that everyone viewsthe disabled child as a challenge rather than just another pupil. The IEP is revised annually. Turnbull, A.P. (1985). The basic features of the model include: (1) individualized, self-initiated reading, (2) expressive writing, (3) incidental, nondirectivecounseling, (4) an administrative facilitator, (5) the special educationteacher as resource specialist, and (6) the pervasive use of instructionalaides. Bagley and Mallick (1996) reported on theeffects of one such program, noting that peer-tutoring outside of theclassroom resulted in significant increases in reading age, self-esteem,and academic self-confidence, in comparison with non-disabled controls. Strategies forsuccess in inclusive classrooms. (1996). Vaughn, S., Elbaum, B.E. Full inclusion and students withautism. Other benefits of full inclusion are said to be increasedexpectations by teachers, behavioral modeling of normally developing peers,more learning, and greater self-esteem. One sizedoesn't fit all: Full inclusion and individual differences. (1997). Drew, C.J., Logan, D.R. Determination Of LRE For Each Student Given the just presented continuum, it can be seen that a means isneeded of determining which level of services is appropriate for theindividual child. (1996). & Lane, K.L. The controversy surrounding full inclusion was then examined.Arguments in favor of as well as against full inclusion were explicated.This was followed by a brief examination of California laws in relation toinclusion; general topics addressed by these laws were listed. & Hamm, S.J. Several studies have attempted to test the validity ofthis claim. (1996). (1994). Families, professionals, andexceptionality: A special partnership (2nd ed.) NY: Merrill. The overview includesdiscussion of research and theory related to: the least restrictiveenvironment (LRE) mandate, methods of determining the LRE for each child;strategies and techniques used by special education teachers, resourcespecialists and other relevant professionals for meeting the educationalneeds of "included" students (commonly referred to as mainstreamedstudents); the controversy involving simple versus full inclusion;California law as it relates to inclusion; and the effects of inclusion onspecial education students' self-concept and self-esteem. Team teaching, according toBernadette (1996) has been found to increase students' level of motivationfor learning. Journal of Early Intervention, 19(3), 195-196. Level II - Regular class attendance plus supplementary instructional services. Turnbull, A.P. These laws cover a wide range ofinclusive issues and concerns including: providing a free and publiceducation to disabled/handicapped students; unifying and improving existingprograms; assuring students all rights and needed services; establishingeducational standards for diabled students; providing educationalopportunities; parent involvement in programs and IEPs; concerns related tospecific categories of disability; the selection, hiring and training ofservice personnel, qualifications required for teachers and support people,assessment, and funding as well as a host of other related issues. Akey principle of this law was the mandate that handicapped children beeducated in "the least restrictive environment." According to Turnbulland Turnbull (199 ), the LRE, essentially, mandates the need for acontinuum of services for disabled/handicapped children in public schools. Five steps to collaborative teaching andenrichment remediation. Child Language Teaching and Therapy,1 (2), 166-178. & Shea, V. According to Fullwood, Pankake and Fournet (1996), about half of theadministrators they surveyed were in favor of full inclusion based on thenotion that, for personal and social growth, all children should be membersof a regular class and should have the same school experiences. California Special Education Programs: A composite of Laws.Sacramento, CA: California Department of Education. Thisdiscussion was followed by a brief description of how schools determine theleast restrictive environment (appropriate placement/education) for eachstudent on an individual basis. Borthwick-Duffy, S.A., Palmer, D.S. Even before the LRE became national policy, Deno (197 ) envisionedthis continuum of services as follows: Level I - Children in regular classes, including those "handicapped" able to get along with regular class accommodations with or without medical or counseling supportive therapies. The next section of the review delineated several strategies andtechniques used by resource specialists, special educators and relevantothers to facilitate the learning of disabled students who have beenmainstreamed to the regular school. Reading and Writing Quarterly: OvercomingLearning Difficulties, 13(1), 97-1 . & Cipolla, J.M. (1995). If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.