LEARNING THEORIES & STYLES.   Term Paper ID:23374 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Examines learning theories (behaviorism, cognition), styles (divergers, convergers) & modes (experience, reflection), related to motor skills acquisition.... More...

10 Pages / 2250 Words 19 sources, 43 Citations, APA Format $40.00 Return to List of Papers

Paper Abstract: Examines learning theories (behaviorism, cognition), styles (divergers, convergers) & modes (experience, reflection), related to motor skills acquisition. Paper Introduction: MOTOR MOVEMENT SKILLS ACQUISITION: AN APPLICATION OF THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING Introduction There are four primary motor skill components. These components are accuracy, speed, economy of effort, and flexibility (Lee, 1988, pp. 201-215). Initially, accuracy is attained only at the expense of the other motor skill components. Flexibility is the last of the motor skill components typically acquired. Flexibility is acquired through the alteration of a newly acquired function with others already well established, and through the integration of features learned in previous stages (Christina & Bjork, 1991, pp. 23-56). Each of the four components of motor skill are essential to the automatization Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive Behavior Therapy, 4(1), 68-81. . A. The wide variations in the approach to learning which characterize thefour learning style types discussed pose significant problems for theteacher in almost any field. Cognitive theory incorporates some aspects of behavioral theory. M. (1992). In acting on an organism from without, Skinner (p. Frequent augmented feedback can degradelearning. Organizational psychology: An experimental approach.(3rd ed.). responses" to one's own behaviors (p. T. A. Thus, motor skills should be developedearly in life. Champaign,Illinois: Human Kenetics Publishers, Inc., pp. Christina, R. Psychological Science, 3(4), 2 7-217. (1992). Skills learning and knowledge ofresults effects are considered in the two discussions that follow thisintroduction.Learning Motor Movement Skills Learning theory, concepts, and styles affect the acquisition of motormovement skills (Wulf & Schmidt, 1989, pp. Transfer-appropriate processing: A framework forconceptualizing practice effects in motor learning. Cognitive phenomena are grouped into three categories. In Meijer, O. The two basic types of evaluation, or assessment, processes are theformative, and the summative. The first link was an operation performed on an organism fromwithout, while the second link was an inner psychological condition. 242-243). Principles of applied psychology. D. Maslow, A. Lerner, R. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. M.Future directions in exercise and sports science research. Bjork, R. By learning is meant the process by whichan individual is able to change his or her behavior in some constructivemanner (Skinner, 1953, pp. Retrieval practice and the maintenance ofknowledge. The most frequent of these thoughtbehaviors encountered by the cognitive psychologist are over generalization--an assumption that behavior of one's is invariant, arbitrary inference--jumping to conclusions, selective abstraction--where one ignores a part ofthe available information, and all-or-nothing thinking--where one acceptsonly the extremes of a continuum as an explanation for the behavior ofone's partner. The thirdcategory of cognitive phenomena includes one's "unrealistic and irrationalbeliefs about the nature of . It has been found that motor skills can be learned or improved at anypoint during the life of an individual (Bjork, 1993, pp. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, pp.2 1-215. This approach to learning has been described as "aperiod of observation leading to understanding. 13). The four learningmodes are concrete experience (CE), reflective observation (RO), abstractconceptualization (AC), and active experimentation (AE). Turner, J. Wulf, G., & Schmidt, R. W., & Bjork, R. Such irrationalbeliefs, which may result in dysfunctional behavioral responses towardsothers, are referred to in cognitive psychology as schemata. PsychologicalBulletin, 1 1, 41-74. Accomodators are the does of the world, who excel incarrying out plans, and who thrive on new experiences. (1992). F. 68). (1984). Journal of ExperimentalPsychology [Learning, Memory, and Cognition], 15, 352-359. In the acquisition of motor movement skills,there are four specific learning style types. Suchexpectancies influence one's behaviors, and such expectancies "aresusceptible to systematic" cognitive distortion (p. (Eds.). New York: Century Publishers. In Requin, J., & Stelmach, G. Assimilation involves theperception and interpretation of new information within the context ofexisting knowledge and understanding. 2 7-217). Science and human behavior. Evidence fordissociable motor skills. New York: Random House. The, the process of motor skills development by a person ischaracterized by incremental and relative growth. (1989). The behaviorist theory Skinner is, essentially, a drive theory. Theolder a person is, however, the more difficult it is typically for a personto transfer motor skills into use. 2 1-215). Each of the four learning style types is dependent upon adifferent combination of four specific learning modes. (1989). The insight approach, also known as the perceptual response approach,holds that all learning of whatever variety has as its basic characteristica progressive differentiation from a more general perceptual field (Maslow,pp. Kolb, D. In Druchman, D., & Bjork, R. The role of the teacher in thisapproach is to give the person some direction by leading her or him towardscertain techniques which may assist in problem solution. 34) viewed the causal chain of behavior as a three-linkprocess. Psychobiology, 21(3), 173-182. Motor movement skillsacquisition involves concepts of learning, and the effectiveness of thelearning of motor movement skills is affected by the concept of knowledgeof results (Schmidt, 1989, pp. S., Corbin, C. Basic beliefs are used by individuals in the evaluation of life event. Basic beliefs are often learned early inlife. 355).Concluding Remarks A number of cautions are required if learning potentials are to bemaximized. New York: The FreePress. Thesecond category is comprised of an individual's expectancies "about theprobabilities of . Whileit is a drive theory, Skinner's theory has also provided the base uponwhich many of the effective content and process human developmentapproaches have been developed. 396-4 1. W., Schmidt, R. 69). (1986). . 173-182)confirmed, however, the efficacy of the combined behavioral-cognitiveapproach to learning in relation to motor skills acquisition.References Adams, J. Piaget's cognitive theory of human development also includes stage-dependent concepts (Lerner, pp. Expectancies "involve estimates of the probabilities that one . The learning of generalized motorprograms. New conceptualizations ofpractice. The psychology of science: A reconnaissance. Skinner advanced the behavioristapproach through the development of the concepts of operant conditioningand reinforcement (pp. (1993, September). The significantly different approaches tolearning imply that rates of motor movement skills acquisition may beexpected to vary widely among most groups of students, and that variationsin teaching and assessment strategies may be desirable. By observing the problemfor a while and thinking about it, the subject is able to solve it"(Poffenberger, 1992, pp. B. These five stages of humandevelopment are sensorimotor development, preconceptual thought, intuitivethought, concrete operations, and formal operations (Hill & Humphrey, pp.27-29). Convergers tendto prefer things to people, and to focus on a relatively narrow range oftechnical interests. The individuals employingthese four learning styles are referred to as divergers--Type 1,assimilators--Type 2, convergers--Type 3, and accommodators--Type 4 (Kolb,1989, p. H. (1991). 13 ). 68). 748-757). In the summative process, a singleevaluation indicator, or score, is applied to a person's performance inrelation to an overall learning objective. Initially, accuracy is attained only at the expense of the othermotor skill components. 23-56). Schmidt, R. 25 -261). Convergers are best at focusing on specificproblems, which are best solved by a single best answer. Thus, in the analysis of behavior, itis necessary to emphasize the relationship between the first and thirdlinks--actions on an organism from without, and the organism's responsebehaviors (p. The automatization of a performance pattern is the production ofthe pattern without conscious attention. 74). Systematic distortion related to one's automatic thoughts occursthrough a variety of thought behaviors. A., & Walter, C. 23-56. 59-61). The CE learningmode implies that an individual is able to become fully and openlyinvolved, without bias, in new experiences, while the RE learning modeimplies that the individual is capable of observing and reflecting uponsuch experiences from a multiplicity of perspectives, and the AC learningmode implies that an individual can create concepts which integrate theirobservations into logical and sound theories. B., & Landers, D. Accommodation is a more advancedprocess that involves the restructuring of mental organization in order toinclude new information. (Eds.). Some authorities think that the formativeprocess of evaluation would yield superior performance results to thoseattained through the use of the summative evaluation process. Schmidt and Bjork (pp. 142). 26). Thethird link was a specific behavior. Three basic theories of learning aretrial and error, conditioned response, and insight. Each of the four componentsof motor skill are essential to the automatization of a performancepattern. J. Knowledge ofresults and motor learning. (Eds.).Practical aspects of memory III. Previously learned motor skills provide the person withcontexts that facilitate the production of new skill features (Adams, 1987,pp. Skinner (p. Cognitive theory holds that extreme beliefs with respect to "one'sself and one's interaction" with one's environment are among the mostimportant of the cognitive phenomena leading to "dysfunctional behavioralresponses" (Epstein, pp. F. 121). Thus,depending upon the situation and upon the desired behavior, an appropriatestimulus might be either the introduction of a factor into an organism'senvironment--a positive reinforcement, or the withdrawal of a factor froman organism's environment--a negative reinforcement. 74-75). 5 -58). 395-41 . 143) alsotheorized that the tools of positive and negative reinforcement--satiationand deprivation--may increase the strength of may types of behaviorssimultaneously. London: Wiley, pp. 11 ). Psychological Bulletin, 95(3), 355-386. (8thed.). Through the application of this approach, ateacher can present problems to individuals, where the imagination of theindividuals can be employed in the development of solutions and where theteacher can discuss decisions of the individuals being taught in order toprovide guidance. (4th ed.).New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Thus, the cognitive analyst is concerned with a subject's past, aswell as with her or his present situation. Skinner, B. 59-75. 59-75). (1991). Skinner (p. 26-27). 36-38). 246-25 ).Equilibration refers to the balance between the action of an organism onits environment and the action of the environment on the organism.Functional assimilation is the concept that explains why human developmentcontinues after equilibration has been attained. Complex motor behavior. A. In Skinner, J. 352-359;Schmidt, 1991, pp. M., Morris, P. 396-4 1). E., Swinnen, S., & Shapiro, D. The firstcategory, referred to as automatic thoughts, is comprised of anindividual's stream of consciousness thought and visual images, which occuras responses to life events. Organization refersto an ability to order and classify new experiences, while adaptationenables an individual to understand the surrounding environment.Adaptation occurs through the functioning of the mental processes ofassimilation and accommodation (pp. 4-6). Schmidt, R, A. Cognitive marital therapy. Piaget's theory is based onorganization and adaptation (Turner and Helms, p. (1989).Summary knowledge of results for skill acquisition. 153). Assimilators (Type 2 learning style) tend to rely most heavily on theAC (abstract conceptualization) and RO (reflective observation) learningmodes (Kolb, 1989, p. Toward a better understanding of theacquisition of skill. relationships" (p. Flexibility is the last of the motor skillcomponents typically acquired. Knowledge of results is "one of the more potentdeterminers of behavior in simple responses (and often in complex responsesas well)" (Salmoni, Schmidt, and Walter, 1984, p. 1 -12). M., & Humphrey, P. Hill, P. Convergers (Type 3 learning style) tend to rely most heavily on the AC(abstract conceptualization) and AE (active experimentation) learning modes(Kolb, 1989, p. Journal of Experimental Psychology [Learning, Memory, andCognition], 15, 748-757. The cognitive concept of human development was pioneered by JeanPiaget (Hill & Humphrey, 1992, pp. 73) theorized thatthe reinforcement actions could be either positive or negative. Washington: National AcademyPress, pp. Schmidt, R. One majordifficulty with the conditioned response approach is that it is virtuallyimpossible to pre-create a condition and a response for all conceivablesituations which may be encountered. 91-1 4). In themind's eye: Enhancing human performance. (3rd ed.). Skinner's behaviorism theory is directly related to the process oflearning (Maslow, 1966, p. E. . Adaptation is amajor characteristic of the accommodators' behavior, and, whileaccomodators tend to like people, they also tend to be impatient with them. Lastly, the AE learning modeimplies that an individual is capable of effectively applying the theoriesdeveloped to decision-making and problem-solving processes. (1991). Distorted and unrealistic expectanciesare, in part, the product of one's schemata, or set of unrealistic andirrational beliefs with respect to the nature of relationships. A. These components areaccuracy, speed, economy of effort, and flexibility (Lee, 1988, pp. 395-41 ). Accomodators (Type 4 learning style) tend to rely most heavily on theCE (concrete experiences) and AE (active experimentation) learning modes(Kolb, 1989, p. Biased attributions in one'sautomatic thoughts are significant because "they can elicit a sense ofhopelessness and helplessness regarding improvement" of the problems beingexperienced (Epstein, p. While complete, accurate, andindependent information concerning the second link would permit predictionof the third link-- behavior--without recourse to the first link, suchinformation simply is not available. Regardlessof the type of the evaluation process employed, performance benefits frominterim assessment feedback. S., & Helms, D. Thus, cognitivepsychologists are concerned with a subject's interpretation of an event,and her or his basic beliefs used in evaluating the event, "regardless ofperceptual accuracy" (Epstein, 1986, p. Flexibility is acquired through thealteration of a newly acquired function with others already wellestablished, and through the integration of features learned in previousstages (Christina & Bjork, 1991, pp. A. The cognitive psychologist attempts to identify cognitive distortionsin the automatic thoughts of a subject. 2 7-217) identify these cautions as arealization that acquisition performance is an imperfect indicator oflearning, and an appreciation that acquisition phenomena and retentionphenomena are not separable. In the context of the use of feedback, it hasbeen found that providing positive feedback is less facilitative during theacquisition of motor skills than is giving negative feedback (Schmidt &Bjork, 1992, pp. 68). Such automatic thoughts related to events may"be biased by systematic cognitive distortions" (Epstein, p. Thus, behavior will be evaluated in the context of one's basic beliefs.If these basic beliefs are unrealistic or irrational, one's expectancieswill likely also tend to be unrealistic and irrational.Knowledge of Results Effects on MotorMovement Skills Acquisition While feedback, referred to as knowledge of results in relation tomotor movement skills development, is recognized as a critical factor inmotor skills acquisition, the unrestricted application of such feedback isbeing questioned (Schmidt, Young, Swinnen, & Shapiro, 1989, pp. Learning theoryapplicable to motor movement skills acquisition is a composite ofbehavioristic and cognitive concepts. A. Lee, T. 36). A., & Bjork, R. This approach provides individuals with the abilities tosolve problems through the use of perception and imagination--once theindividuals have been given some concept of what the complete perceptualfield of interest involves. 74). If one's expectanciesare distorted or unrealistic, however, it is less likely that appropriatebehavioral choices will be made. B. Willingham and Koroshetz (1993, pp. Schmidt, R. By contrast, in the formativeprocess, various aspects of performance are evaluated independently of anoverall learning objective. Concepts and theories of human development. Lifespan development. B. With imaginative capacity as a major strength, the divergeris able to reflect on concrete experiences from a variety of perspectives.Divergers are typically idea, or brainstorming, people, who are interestedin people, and who have a broad range of cultural interests. (3rded.). (1991). With the trial and error approach, the individual learns by attemptingdifferent solutions to a problem until he or she discovers which one of thealternatives work best (Skinner, p. A., Young, D. (1993). Divergers (Type 1 learning style) tend to rely most heavily on the CE(concrete experience) and RO (reflective observation) learning modes (Kolb,1989, p. Salmoni, A. A. 64). 41-74). (1953). The theory underlying the conditioned response approach is that oflearning through habit formation (Skinner, pp. Anassumption central to cognitive theory is that an individual's emotionaland behavioral responses to events in one's life are greatly influenced byone's own interpretations and evaluations of those events. E., & Sykes, R. Historical review and appraisal of research onlearning, retention, and transfer of human motor skills. Poffenberger, A. N. Epstein, N. (1988). (1987). Behavioristic human development involves the concept of conditioning.The classical concept of conditioning is that developed by Ivan Pavlov(Turner & Helms, 1991, pp. G., &Roth, K. B., & Koroshetz, W. With an excellent capacity for indicativereasoning, the assimilator is able create valid theoretical models.Assimilators are typically more interested in abstract concepts than theyare in people, and they tend to be less interested in the practicalusefulness of a theoretical model than they are with its conceptualvalidity. NewYork: Harper & Row, Publishers. Human growth and developmentthroughout life. Assimilation and accommodation, along with equilibration andfunctional assimilation, are stage-independent conceptions in Piaget'scognitive theory of human development (Lerner, 1991, pp. . In Gruneberg, M. Thus,one's expectancies influence one's own behaviors, because the tendencies isfor an individual to choose "actions that will most likely produce desiredconsequences, based on past experiences" (p. .will behave in certain ways in certain situations" (Epstein, p. C. 68). Optimizing long-termretention and transfer. Willingham, D. . 71). Tutorials in Motor Neuroscience.Amsterdam: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. MOTOR MOVEMENT SKILLS ACQUISITION: AN APPLICATION OF THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING Introduction There are four primary motor skill components. (1989). (1966). New York: John Wiley & Sons. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.