TRANSITION FROM SOVIET TO RUSSIAN EDUCATION.   Term Paper ID:22653 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Analyzes changes in schooling after fall of Soviet Union, curriculum, reforms, ideology, aims & theories, administration, teaching methods, structure, special education, compared to U.S.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Analyzes changes in schooling after fall of Soviet Union, curriculum, reforms, ideology, aims & theories, administration, teaching methods, structure, special education, compared to U.S. Paper Introduction: TRANSITION FROM SOVIET TO RUSSIAN EDUCATION Introduction This research examines the transitions in education from the late-period of the Russian Soviet Socialist Republic, a constituent state of the Soviet Union, to the early-period of the Russian Republic, a politically independent nation. The period covered in this research roughly spans the mid-1980s through the mid-1990s. Problem Statement The Soviet Union was an ideologically based state that both politicized and biased education as a part of governmental policy (Yegorov, 1993, p. 13). Modifications of this approach to education began in the Soviet Union prior to the collapse of Communist rule, as Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. Although there areimportant exceptions to the rule, to a great extent, education for thehandicapped student tends to be assessed according to many of the criteriapreviously applied to cases that involved charges of discrimination basedon race or ethnic background. Modifications of this approach to education began in theSoviet Union prior to the collapse of Communist rule, as President MikhailGorbachev's policy of Peristroika introduced varying measures of policyrelaxation in all spheres of Soviet society (Bordinsky, 1992, p. (1992, January). One goal in this context is to causestudents to be both self-determining and self-finding. (1995, March). The remaining 2.8 percent of theSoviet population was spread among more than 35 additional nationalities.The nationalities problem was a major headache for the Soviet rulers in theKremlin. Private schools, other than afew Russian Orthodox seminary schools, were not permitted.Educational Structure The Soviet educational network included pre-schools, general secondaryschools (grade levels one through 12), specialized secondary schools (forstudents in grades nine through 12 who were allowed to complete theireducation either on a part-time basis or by correspondence), vocational-technical schools, trade schools, and special education schools (for bothphysically and mentally handicapped students, and for students gifted inmusic, ballet, or mathematics), as well as universities and otherinstitutions of higher-learning. (1994). The specification of a social studieslearning objective that required a student to emphasize multiethniccontributions to the early development of the American republic, however,would be challenged by vocal and organized groups of parents andconservative interest groups. 245). The threeprincipal components of the curriculum were as follows: (1) cognitive(gaining knowledge about production sectors and industrial processes andorganization, production tools and machinery, and energy and powersources); (2) moral (developing respect for, and dedication to, bothintellectual and physical endeavor and eradicating the distinction betweenmental and manual labor); and (3) practical (acquiring sound work habitsthrough direct involvement in the production or creation of goods andservices). Objectivemeasures of competency in basic skills would be the learning outcomeobjectives sought by most Americans; however, the outcome-based educationdebate has been hijacked by loony, left-wing educators on one side andcrazy, right-wing Christians on the other side. In the United States, these alternative schools would becalled private schools. During the Soviet era, the Communist Party of theSoviet Union (CPSU) played a central role in the development botheducational philosophy and educational policies. 379). Eachinstitute focused on a specific area of research, such as curriculum andteaching methods, general and pedagogical psychology, visual teaching aidsand school equipment, labor training, and professional orientation. Atrisk students in the United States, however, may be those students who arehandicapped (mentally or physically), those students with limited Englishlanguage proficiency, or those students from lower socioeconomic groups whoare susceptible to educational risk. Rust, V. The statesman's year-book: 1995-1996. 245). The socialist values taught in the schools werelove of labor, the scientific-materialist (atheist) view of life,patriotism and devotion to the homeland (Soviet Union), and the need toplace the interests of society before those of the individual (primacy ofthe collective. In the context of education, the law requires, to the maximum extentpossible, that handicapped students receive the same educationalopportunities as are available to all other students. Educational Philosophies and Policies Soviet education had Marxist-Leninist philosophical underpinnings,including the dual goals of educating youth and shaping their character(Zickel, 1989, p. Phi Delta Kappan, 73(5), 378-385. References Braaksma, J. A major curriculum change in this reform is an emphasis onhumanities. . The Academy of Pedagogical Sciences had 13 institutes, severalexperimental schools, and other facilities (Zickel, 1989, p. Political indoctrination was a central concern even in elementary-level education in the Soviet era (Zickel, 1989, p. E. The Russian Ministry of Educationdoes not accept the ideas that minority language orientations orsocioeconomic deprivation are sufficient for an at-risk educationaldesignation. Their best hopes for long-term success in such an endeavor depends largely upon the introduction ofeducational innovation in the country's elementary school classrooms, asolder students are faced with the somewhat daunting task of unlearning someof what they have been taught in the past. This examination focuses on thetransitions in Russian elementary education. In the spring of 1995, however, this permissionwas suspended, and when the Evangelical Christians persisted in attempt toregain the permission, the Russian Ministry of Education informed them thatthe participation of their organization, the South Carolina-basedCommission Project, along with the organization's "Christian Ethics andMorality" course prepared for use in Russian public schools, was terminatedpermanently. These reforms were intended prepare studentsto function effectively in a modernized and technologically advanced nationthat the Gorbachev government envisioned for the future. Further, most educational administrators in central,republic, and local education posts were CPSU party members, as were themajority of school directors and many teachers. Such an emphasis has longbeen sought in the United States by "back to basics" parental andconservative social groups. Special education for physically and mentally handicapped students inthe Soviet era was confined to separate schools, as opposed to themainstreaming concept implemented in the United States (Zickel, 1989, p.255). 25 -252). These goals pursued through a conceptual structurethe Soviets called "polytechnical education" that was intended to integrateeducation with life by connecting formal schooling with practical trainingin all schools and at all levels of the educational system. The CPSUexercised control over not only the direction of educational developmentbut also the implementation of policies and directives. In the contemporaryRussian Republic, however, objective measures of competency are challengedon the grounds that the practice smacks too much of socialistauthoritarianism/ Educational reform in the Russian Republic subsequent to December 1991has emphasized a movement toward the European tradition in education (Rust,1992, p. Hunter, B. Amsterdam, The Netherlands. During Peristroika, grade four was added to the primary-level in the Soviet general secondary system, and the intermediate-levelwas restructured to include grades five through nine. To accomplishthese goals, the characteristics of Russian education prior to the collapseof Communism are described. Acceptanceof this approach would required the separate schools maintained forphysically and mentally handicapped students to be dissolved, and thestudents integrated into regular school classrooms. Educational reforms initiated underPeristroika included substantial changes in curriculum and textbooks (toeliminate politically-based bias) and teaching methods (to fosterflexibility and innovation). Although the political content of schoolcurricula had to be ideologically correct, the materials were notnecessarily overwhelmingly politicized. Only the specific values taught varybetween the three educational systems. TRANSITION FROM SOVIET TO RUSSIAN EDUCATION Introduction This research examines the transitions in education from the late-period of the Russian Soviet Socialist Republic, a constituent state of theSoviet Union, to the early-period of the Russian Republic, a politicallyindependent nation. In this context, Soviet era education was comparable toRoman Catholic parochial education in the United States in the first-halfof the twentieth century and to many Fundamentalist Christian schools inthe contemporary United States. The history and literature curricula were especially politicized andbiased through a process of selection and interpretation designed topromote an inculcation of communist values and ideology (Zickel, 1989, p.255). D. Divisiveness among the nationalities of the former Soviet Unionare the cause of strife between several of the former Soviet republics inthe post-Soviet era, including hostility between Russia and the otherformer Soviet republics. In the contemporary United States, the central issue onwhich outcome-based education tends to be attacked is the focus onpsychological and ideological orientations as opposed to academicperformance in the establishment of learning outcome objectives. These secularprivate schools have the best facilities, equipment, materials, amenities,and teachers, while state controlled and run public schools fall into ruin. 52). Physical punishment in Soviet era schools was prohibited (Zickel,1989, p. The hostility and resentment among thenationalities stemming from the Stalinist era together with the failure ofthat era's successors to effectively redress the grievances, however,created significant difficulties for Gorbachev. The Soviet approach to education both fostered uniformity and dampenedcuriosity among students (Yegorov, 1993, p. 252-253). The curriculum in the intermediate-level classes (which included the fourth grade prior to Peristroika and thefifth grade during Peristroika, included literature, history, socialstudies, geography, and mathematics, at the fourth and fifth grade levels. Competency-based education and mastery learning are not rejected, however, at aconceptual level in the United States. No reforms in this approach to special education for the handicappedwere implemented during Peristroika. 249). Educational Practices Educational administration during the Soviet era was controlled at theultimate-level by the CPSU (Zickel, 1989, p. 246). Curricula,textbooks, and teaching methods were standardized nationwide. Soviet ear schools maintained the five-point grading scale, a formaland regimented classroom environment, and school uniforms [dark dresseswith white collars--white pinafores in the lower grades--for girls, anddark pants and white shirts for boys], all of which were inherited from theTsarist era (Zickel, 1989, p. Thesereforms were expanded subsequent to December 1991 (Rust, 1992, p. (1995, November). Both secular private schools and religion-basedprivate schools are being formed in the Russian Republic (Hunter, 1995, p.378). P. (Ed.). "Why" and "how"are seldom taught in Russian elementary-level education, where the emphasisremains on "what," "where," and "when" (p. In addition to molding socialist morality, Soviet era educationalcurriculum included formal academic courses which, at least on thescientific side, were of high quality (Zickel, 1989, p. (1995). Disagreements arise whenthe character and specificity of standards are considered. The primary-level curriculumwas rounded out with art and music classes, physical education, andvocational training. Russian teachers remain"timid, . In the United States, discrimination against handicappedpersons is legally prohibited in a variety of contexts including education. 376). The power of educationwas viewed as the means to mold the country's social fabric into aCommunist society. The success of the transitionof Russian education, thus, is important to all peoples. 254). Some reformers in the contemporaryRussian Republic have attempted to gain acceptance of the American approachto special education for implementation in the Russian education system(Heyneman, 1995, pp. (1995, 24 April). 379). The period covered in this research roughly spans themid-198 s through the mid-199 s. American Evangelical Christians obtained permission from thegovernment of the Russian Republic to both establish religion-controlledprivate schools and to provide curricula and educational materials to otherschools in the country. Politicalrhetoric has been eliminated from the curricula in the contemporary RussianRepublic's educational system (Brodinsky, 1992, p. NewYork: St. The great majority (97.2 percent)of the population of the Soviet Union belonged to one of the 22 majorpopulation groups found in the country. Children in the Soviet era spent from 1 -to-12class periods per week learning to read and write in Russian or the nativelanguage of the Soviet Socialist Republic in which they resided, and classsix periods per week learning mathematics. Curriculum in the Soviet era was dictated largely by Marxist-Leninphilosophy (Zickel, 1989, p. In the secular sector, private schools have been establishedfor the newly wealthy in the contemporary Russian Republic. Heyneman, S. Cox, H. Completion of the secondary schoolprogram became compulsory in 197 . (1992, January). 38 ). In post-Soviet Russia, however, themastery learning concept is under increasing attack, largely because of theSoviet experience. 249). Theacademy's research efforts also included special education (for thephysically and mentally impaired), teacher training, testing methodology,and textbook preparation. During the twilight years of the SovietUnion, Gorbachev attempted to return to the Lenin approach in dealing withthe nationalities problem, while at the same time attempting to preservethe integrity of the Soviet Union. 244). Although thedegree of standardization and centralization was very high, the schoolsystem was not totally monolithic, and it reflected the multiethnicdiversity of the country's fifteen republics as well as differences inquality between urban and rural elementary-level schools. All tuition was free, and the majorityof students in specialized secondary schools and institutions of higherlearning received monthly stipends.Elementary-Level Education Elementary-level education during the Soviet era was a part of thegeneral secondary school (Zickel, 1989, pp. While ideological bias has largely been removed from theeducational curricula in contemporary Russia, educational teachingpractices and behaviors have proved to be resistant to change. 1-15). The CPSU demanded a"conservative approach to pedagogy" (p. Administration of the school system was by the government'seducation ministries under the direct authority of the Council of Ministersof the Soviet Union. . America's most precious export.American School board Journal, 182(3), 22-26. Thus, thespecification of a mathematics learning objective within the context of acapability to apply a specific procedure to solve a specific problem likelywould encounter little opposition. In the contemporaryUnited States, grades one through five are found in the typical elementaryschool, although some elementary schools continue responsibility for sixthgrade education. Educators in contemporaryRussia would like to reverse these outcomes. The period covered in this research roughly spans themid-198 s through the mid-199 s. 376).Nevertheless, Russian teachers remain hesitant to implement change, and theeducational bureaucracy remains resistant to the incorporation of change inthe educational system. Brodinsky, B. Another concern of Soviet pedagogywas upgrading vocational education and labor training in the generalsecondary school [the general secondary school in the Soviet era includedall education between pre-school and higher education--school years onethrough 12; thus, elementary-level education was a component of the generalsecondary school]. One implication of this approach to theassessment of educational opportunity is that the concept of separate butequal, in and of itself, is not a justifiable basis for the exclusion ofhandicapped students from the general classroom. The Science and Education Institutions Department ofthe CPSU Central Committee implemented educational policies that weredesigned to ensure ideological conformity in all instruction at all schoollevels. The end resultof this process was to be a dedicated and skilled work force. Outcome-based education is a process driven by masterylearning. In the contemporary period in the Russian Republic, both citizens andeducators are interested in the formation of alternative type schools(Brodinsky, 1992, p. 383). Soviet era education was authoritarian, and the curriculum was heavilyoriented toward the promulgation, promotion, and reinforcement of ofsocialist ideology. 13). Summary and Conclusion This research examined the transitions in education from the late-period of the Russian Soviet Socialist Republic, a constituent state of theSoviet Union, to the early-period of the Russian Republic, a politicallyindependent nation. Lasting world peace and progress, however, would beenhanced if these two nations did not feel required to regard theirrelationship as one that could disintegrate into open conflict with littleimpetus. Within these republics, were anumber of autonomous areas and regions. (1993, August). 247). Earlier day Roman Catholicparochial school curriculum was used to preserve Catholic values in whatwas perceived by church leaders to be a sea of sin and blasphemy.Contemporary Fundamentalist school curriculum seeks to remold the Americanpolitical system within the structure of Fundamentalist Christian values,and preserve Fundamentalist Christian values in what FundamentalistChristian leaders perceive to be a sea of sin and blasphemy (Cox, 1995, pp.61-62, 66-67). Children attending non Russian-speaking schoolsprovided for a total of 44 different nationality groups in the Soviet Unionbegan learning Russian in the second grade, resulting in an even heavieracademic load for such students. In the Soviet Union, however, learningobjectives were couched in socialist philosophy. (Ed.). waiting for direction" (p. Soviet era school curriculum wasused to further the political process. During Peristroika, these curricula were reformed to eliminate muchof the politicization and bias of the Soviet era. During Peristroika, outmoded teaching methods, a regimented and formalclassroom environment, and the rote method of learning began to give way toinnovations based the American John Dewey's ideas and concepts thatincluded an elimination of learning by rote (Zickel, 1989, p. All schools, except for a very few at officially approved RussianOrthodox Church-run seminaries, were controlled and operated by the state(Zickel, 1989, p. Lawton, K. Even in the primary grades, teaching remainsmostly in the form of lecture (Brodinsky, 1992, p. Allowable disciplinary measures included oral reprimands byteachers, collective pressure in the form of peer disapproval, bad marks inrecord books (demerits), consultations with parents, and, as a last resort,expulsion from school. The impact of Peristroika on Sovieteducation. The Russians haverejected this approach to educational reform. The educational system shouldered theprimary responsibility for teaching socialist values from pre-schoolthrough higher-education. Soviet era education embraced the concept of outcome-based education,a concept that continues to be debated in the United States (Braaksma,1994, pp. conformist, and . 248). 379).Subsequent to the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russian education has beenfree to implement further change, although such change has proven to beneither easy, consistent, or lasting (Lawton, 1995, p. Three views from abroad: A Russianperspective. Some aspects of Soviet education began to be reformedduring the period of Peristroika ushered in by President Gorbachev.Further reform has occurred in the post-Soviet era in the Republic ofRussia. Grades four through eight were considered to be theintermediate-level of general secondary education. A. Alternative in this context refers to an escapefrom the public education system that is controlled by the Russian stategovernment. 38 ). 244). . Proceedings of the EuropeanConference on Educational Change. School Administrator, 5 (8), 13-15. Foreign language study, with English the most popular, began in thefifth grade (Zickel, 1989, p. Methodological Approach This examination reviews the process in the transition of Russianeducation with goals of identifying changes, problems associated withimplementing change, and the contemporary Russian education. Martin's Press. 245). Soviet Union: A Country Study.Washington: U.S. The essentiallyparallel structure between party and government provided the main mechanismfor this oversight. These characteristics include both theprinciples and practices of Soviet education, as well as reforms introducedduring Peristroika under the leadership of President Gorbachev. Thetransitions in Russian education since December 1991, when the Sovietgovernment was overthrown, are then considered within the context of thebase system from which they were implemented. By 1991, the approximately 282 million citizens of the SovietUnion resided in the 15 constituent Soviet republics that formed thepolitical entity of the Soviet Union. (1989). 251). His leadership approachwas sound, but past bitterness did not permit the policies an opportunityto work. The primary-level curriculum during the Soviet era emphasized reading,writing, and arithmetic (Zickel, 1989, p. For themost part, educators in the United States developing learning outcomeobjectives tend to focus on environmentalism, globalism, andmulticulturalism, while Fundamentalist Christian critics of outcome-basededucation want learning outcome objectives to emphasize prudent resourceuse, patriotism, and the concept of the American melting pot. The inspectorate and the quality of thecurriculum: Developments in Eastern Europe. Yegorov, A. 254). Opposition to the concept of outcome-based education in theUnited States is not centered so much in objections mastery learning as itis in the specification of the outcomes that are to be learned. 22-28). . School reform in the Russian Republic.Phi Delta Kappan, 73(5), 375-377. The educational reform also strives to make Russian elementary-level education more child-centered. 13). Research Significance The successful transition of Russian education from a biased andpoliticized process to an innovative and relatively open process hasimplications far beyond the national borders of the Russian Republic.Contemporary Russia and the United States are not so much partners in thepromotion of human progress as they are reluctant allies on a problem-by-problem scenario. 25 ). Government Printing Office. Commission agreement canceled.Christianity Today, 39, 52. Educational Delivery To provide free, universal, and multilingual education to allcitizens, the Soviet government operated a vast network of learninginstitutions (Zickel, 1989, pp. Thus, in the absence ofcogent and supportable reasons why the integration of handicapped studentsinto general classes should not occur, the mainstreaming of handicappedstudents into general classes must occur according to the law. Grades one throughthree were considered to be the primary-level of general secondaryeducation. During Peristroika, over bureaucratization was criticized by theofficial press and by leading educators as a major cause of the seriouslack of quality in Soviet education (Zickel, 1989, p. At risk students are defined in the UnitedStates as those students with special needs who require programs andservices over and above those provided to the general body of students.The Russian Ministry of Education finds no problem with this concept. Problem Statement The Soviet Union was an ideologically based state that bothpoliticized and biased education as a part of governmental policy (Yegorov,1993, p. The warring visions of the religious right.Atlantic Monthly, 276(5), 59-62, 64-66, 68-69. A giant step in the direction of bringing the Russian Republicinto a full partnership with the United States in the promotion of humanprogress will be the education of a generation of Russian children who arenot steeped into lockstep polemic thinking. Zickel, R. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.