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Paper Abstract: History, parental rights & motivations, objections of public education system, legalities, effectiveness, case study of New Hampshire. Paper Introduction: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction The review of literature presented here offers a comprehensive overview of the literature on home schooling. The review covers several aspects of this literature. These include: (1) historical aspects of home schooling; (2) reasons why parents choose to home school; (3) characteristics of families electing to home school (4) objections of the public education system to home schooling; (5) legal aspects of home schooling; (6) research on the effectiveness of home schooling; and (7) home schooling in New Hampshire. This final section is included because the proposed study shall examine home schooling in the state of New Hampshire and this section will therefore provide context for the setting. Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. (1987). SRA Survey of basic skills,Alaska Statewide Assessment, Sp. . The authors studied a sample of homeschooling parents whowere divided into two groups: (1) parents who had selected home schoolingfor academic reasons; and (2) parents who had selected home schooling forreligious/philosophical reasons. Nonetheless, it can be noted that most stateshave set up standards related to one or more of six areas, these beingthose of curriculum, home instructors' qualifications, amount of dailyinstructional time, the number of instructional days during the year,assessment of educational progress in relation to standardized tests, andparental verification for legal compliance. In another study of home schooling, Ray (1988) examined studies ofhome schooling, cognitive ability and emotional maturity. (1984). Several motives were listed including: classroom violence anddrug usage, low quality education, parental disillusionment and lowconfidence in the existing public education system, the politicalization ofthe classroom by means of teachers and curriculum, and parental feelings ofinability to influence the system for change. ERIC DOCUMENT ERIC ED 278 489. Quine, D.N. In particular, Sheffer recommends that parents educatingtheir children at home can teach public school educators about sucheducation-related matters as: (1) children setting their own reading goalsand achieving them; (2) using vertical age grouping in instruction; (3)children forming friendships with adults; and (4) using student portfoliosto measure student progress. (p. Greene (1984) compiled a profile of Alaska home study students andtheir families. McGee, J.C. Reasoning abilities of home-educated children. Political and religious characteristics of homeschool parents: results of an ongoing study in four western states. For example, in cases of divorce, thepredicate finding is the dissolution of the marriage. ERIC DOCUMENT ERIC ED 3 8 585. Tennessee Department of Education, (1988). Method: Alaskan Perspectives, 7, p. Citing this research, Ray(199 ) asserts that it is likely that such achievement outcomes areexplained by the fact that children who are home schooled experience a highdegree of value consistency as well as strong parental interest indeveloping intensive and warm relationships with their children. It was noted that since much ofhome schooling philosophy is based on the writings of John Holt, someobjections to home schooling have been directed toward his philosophy,claiming that it is unrealistic about families and pessimistic about schoolreform. Scogin foundthat 91 percent of their children were at or above one grade level inreading. (Available from the author at 161 9 N.E.,169Pt., Woodinville, WA 987 2). Setting the content for state regulation of homeschooling parents. Home School Researcher,2(2), 1-4. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction The review of literature presented here offers a comprehensiveoverview of the literature on home schooling. Bolick (199 ) statesthat when most of the objections to home schooling are analyzed, many ofthem amount to no more than schemes cooked up by the educationestablishment to protect its monopoly and job security. For example,Barrett's recommendation of a values education program would be an areawhere parents such as these would desire to make sure that the values beingtaught are in line with Bible principles and, as discussed earlier in thisview, this tends to be an area of great disparity between the views of thereligious home schoolers and the public school system. Similarly, instudies of home schoolers in Oregon (Oregon Department of Education, 1988)and Tennessee (Tennessee Department of Education, 1988) found that homeeducated students scored higher than average on a variety of standardizedachievement tests. (2) There is one God with three persons - Father, Son, and HolySpirit. . Moreover, itwas noted that home schooling was practiced in colonial times with a highdegree of success. Educational Review, 41(2), 21-33. Homeschooling has also been found to be effective in children'slanguage skill development. . Doctoraldissertation, Andrews University, Berrien Springs, MI. (1989). (1989b). As Pride puts it, when compared to publiceducation: Christian education claims a different starting point--the Bible--and a different authority-God . Tokushige (1927) - The court upheld the right ofparents to direct the education of their children without unreasonablerestricts such as statutes forbidding parents to either home educate or toselect private and/or religious schools instead of public schools. News & World Report (December 9,1991) stated that while some families are not choosing to home educate,they are nonetheless pulling their children out of the public school systemand placing them in private schools. (1987). One point that needs to be stressed is that the literature onobjections to home schooling indicates that there appears to be a good dealof animosity between those affiliated with the public education system andhome schoolers. Standardized tests for home study students:Administration and results. The publiceducation system is seen by them as a vehicle for spreading the "faith" ofsecular humanism--an ideological framework that espouses ego autonomy as amoral basis with the closest principle to any Absolute being that of theAbsolute Relativity of Values and Morals. In a comparison of home schooler parents and public school educators,Van Galen (1987) found that most educators tend to feel that parentalchoice to educate is nothing more than provincialism and that it is aparental tendency that children need to be protected from. The dependent measure of the study was the Learning AccomplishmentProfile which assessed children's degree of language development and whichwas administered both before and after the study. While Pride makes it clear as to why Christian families would bedisinclined to send their children to public school, it remains unclear asto why they would prefer home schooling to private Christian schooling. To this end,the section presented the legal definition of home schooling in NewHampshire, and the curricular specifics. Home schools: A synthesis of research oncharacteristics and learner outcomes. . Legal conflicts involving homeinstruction of school-aged children. . Forexample, Williams (1991) examined home schooling and creativity using theTorrance Tests of Creative Thinking Figural Form A. Supreme Court declared that both parents and guardianshave the right to direct the upbringing and education of children undertheir control. Reasons Why Parents Choose To Home Educate Before examining the literature on reasons why parents choose to homeeducate their children, it is important to support Whitehead and Bird's(1984) contention that there has been a shift away from the public schoolsand toward home schooling. Paperpresented at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-South Educational ResearchAssociation (Little Rock, AR, November 7 - 1 ). Based on review of the literature, it can be said that what educatorsare not dealing with is the fact that the bulk of parents electing towithdraw their children from public school and home educate them are doingso because of a conflict of two faiths, the faith the school system hasplaced in the relativistic and humanistic framework and the faith Christianfamilies have in the Absolute God-centered framework. ERIC DOCUMENT ED 282 348. Stipulations regarding homeschooling were then listed. Policy makers should acknowledge such parents' resistance to rationally organized institutions that marginalize their participation. (1984). Quine and Mark (1988) examined the intellectual development ofstudents educated at home. (4) Families choosing to home educate have characteristics whichdistinguish them from the regular population. Theresponse rate to mailed survey questionnaires was 62 percent. In addition, home schoolers werefound to be at or above average on measures of social and emotionalmaturity. (6) the present ministry of the Holy Spirit by whoseindwelling the Christian is enabled to live a godly life. Barrett, N. & Zirkel, P.A.(1982). She feels that the best wayto change the situation is to keep compulsory education requirements to aminimum and focus on reforms that make the public education program moreappealing to parents. Pride, M. Before it can become a workable educational alternative, underlying issues regarding the balance of power between society and parents must be settled. Thus, the current Christian curriculum has far more in common with the current counter- Christian curriculum than it does with Christian education of the past. It was pointed out that owing to thepossible adoption of the newly proposed U.N. Kilgore, P. (1988). In another study of the effectiveness of home schooling, Montgomery(1986) examined the extent to which the home school environment fosteredleadership. The academic success of students in homeschooling. ERIC DOCUMENT ED ERIC 286 624. This organization listsits purposes in the New Hampshire Home Education Guidebook published by theNew Hampshire Homeschooling Coalition (1991). How home-school families operate on a day-to-day basis: Three case studies. Ziegelman used a pretest-posttest two group design consisting of: (1) a parent-teaching home-basedprogram; and (2) a teacher-oriented center-based program. Van Galen, J.A. Finally, the historical argument between those espousing homeschooling and those espousing compulsory school attendance was delineated.In this regard, it was noted that the traditional defense of home schoolinghas been that of the principles of serving the general good and the rightof parental authority and that this argument has successfully resulted inrestrictions on state public education mandates. theCAT) than did students who were conventionally schooled. Webb (1989) also found positive outcomes to be associated with homeschooling. Best interest provision in UN treaty dangerous tofamilies. Despite the variance in motives for electing to home educate, it wasnoted that the vast majority of families choosing to home school areChristians who perceive the school system as teaching a value and beliefsystem which not only erodes but denigrates their own. Indeed, in Pierce vs. The review also examined support services specifically designed forChristian families electing to home school, as well as a statement of faithoffered by one of the organizations providing support services. (1984). Section 1 of this article states: In all actions concerning children, whether undertaken by public or private social welfare institutions, courts of law, administrative authorities or legislative bodies, the best interests of the child shall be a primary consideration. Greene, S.S. Legal aspects of home instruction. . (1986a). (p. . Preiss (1989) also noted that home educators are faced with severalstate regulations, statutes and laws. Specifically, he states that whathas been shown by recent home instruction cases is that state laws.allowingprivate school attendance are often not specific thereby making itdifficult to know who should be prosecuted or how to prosecute them. Rakestraw, J.F. Moreover, it was found that participating parents and public schoolsuperintendents had conflicting attitudes with superintendents exhibiting agood deal of hostility in the form of unsolicited, negative, writtencomments that were appended to the survey. (Pride, 1988, p.174) Pride states that as Christian education is different from that ofpublic education in terms of its underlying perspective and orientation, sotoo is it different in curriculum. This document provides information on several diverse kinds ofresources. Policy Review, 52, 7 -75. March 1, 1988: Homeschool data report. & Bird, W.R. to recognize and prepare him for additional obligations. Schemmer, B.A.S. The next section of this reviewexamines literature related to parental reasons for choosing homeeducation. The difference between the two sides is that the Christians admitthey are dealing with matters of faith whereas the public school systemdoes not; neither does it admit that through its classes and textbookselection, it is "preaching" a specific life perspective. In addition, she found no evidence of prejudice regardingemployment. (199 ). Other objections weresaid to be factors such as only middle and upper level socioeconomic groupsbeing able to afford home schooling, and their being a certainprovincialism to the notions of parents electing to home educate. Summary. It was noted that many families feelthat Christian schools rely too heavily on the methods and materials of thepublic education system.Characteristics of Parents Electing To Home School Their Children There have been numerous studies examining the characteristics ofparents who decide to home school their children. Ziegelman, E.G. A study by Grover and Endsley (1988) suggests that the effectivenessof home schooling may be related to parental reasons for selecting thisalternative. Conclusions Based on the review of the literature, the following conclusions maybe formulated: (1) There is historical precedent for parents' right to homeeducate. Society of Sisters(1925), the U.S. (1991). Specifically, the court wrote that: The child is not the mere creature of the State; those who nurture him and direct his destiny have the right . In Alaska, home education is state managed. (p.23)However, if today's movement to home educate is indeed a "return" or ashift away from the prevailing system of public education, it is reasonableto ask why this shift is being made? 16) McGee (1987) provided an overview of the contemporary legal status ofcases involving public versus home education. Home schooling and creativity. Home School Researcher, 4(3), 1-6. Paper presented atthe Annual Meeting of the American Educational Studies Association(Pittsburgh, PA, October). The flight from public schools.U.S. The notion that the Bible is the authoritative Word of God and shouldbe used for decision-making, that Jesus Christ is the one and only way ofsalvation, and that there is a need for ego autonomy to be substituted infavor of a complete dependence on the Almighty and His Word (as given inthe Bible and through the ministry of the Holy Spirit to one's own mind andspirit) clearly runs counter to the perspective being taught in the publicschool system. It was also observed that the socialization of home educatedstudents was often better than that of their schooled peers. Staff writer (December 9, 1991). Home schooling in context. These include: (1) failure of the school to support parentalrights in schooling and the elimination of majority control of schoolpolicy; (2) the lack of classroom discipline; (3) the need for teachertraining reform; (4) the politicalization of the classroom by means of thecurriculum and by teachers; and (5) the need to revitalize citizenshipeducation. Kilgore (1987) states that there are two primary criticisms of homeschooling: (1) the belief that home schooling cannot provide the quality ordegree of education that can be provided by an institution of formallytrained teachers; and (2) the belief that due to being at home, childrenwho are home schooled will not develop social maturity. Paper presentedat the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association(Washington, DC, April 2 -24). (Farris, 1991, p.22) Farris goes on to note that if this law is passed by Congress,families may find themselves before a judge who finds home schooling goodor acceptable but who nonetheless believes that it is in the best interestof the chid for him or her to go to pubic school. As Farris sees it, homeschoolers' future legal efforts are going to be to fight this shift from adispositional rule to a substantive standard of law. Carrere (1983) feels that while the just delineated arguments of bothsides have been consistent since the turn of the century, contemporarytimes has seen a muddling of the debate. This statement of faith hasthe following eight elements: (1) The Bible is the inspired, infallible, authoritative andinerrant Word of God. Summary. Farris notes that in many home school cases and in Article 3 of theU.N. Finally, she recommends that there be a measurerequiring a values education program, school financial reform, andminimization of the regulation of private schools. She pointed out that the courts have struck down state lawsforbidding private and home education. Nelson feelsthat the essential conflict is maintained because the two sides choose toprosecute each other instead of cooperating with one another. Salem, OR: ODE. (2) Pedagogical - Pedagogical parents do not really have fundamentaldifferences with the school system; they tend to teach their childrenessentially what public schools would teach but desire to have theiryoungsters learn apart from the bureaucratic institution. Now while one explanation for the peer influence finding could beless exposure to peers on the part of home educated students, studies byRakestraw (1987), Reynolds (1985), Schemmer (1983) and Wartes (1987) foundthat home educated students engage in as much peer interaction asconventional school students. Also, parents were said to shift to home education not simply becauseof the negatives associated with the public education system but alsobecause of the positive benefits associated with home schooling. (1989a). In otherwords, Williams' findings would suggest that home schooling is unsuccessfulwith respect to fostering creativity, or at least not as successful as thepublic school system. Marshner, C. Nelson, E. . (1988). Characteristic concerns of home schooling families were said toinclude successfully separating the home environment from the schoolenvironment, achieving a balance between structure and spontaneity, findinggood materials and resources, and assessing educational progress. (8) New Hampshire offers several support services for home schoolerswith special organizations designed specifically for Christian familieselecting to home school. Delahooke (1986) measured several psychosocial status indicators insamples of private school and home schooled ninth graders. Given court decisions such as those listed above and the long-termAmerican tradition of some parents choosing to home educate their children,Whitehead and Bird (1984) report that: . Also,curriculum is required to contain the history of the constitutions of NewHampshire and the United States. The report cites statisticsindicating that while the number of public schools has declined by 3percent to 83,2 , the number of private schools has increased by 3 percent to 26,8 . . (3) While there is variance in reasons to home educate, most homeschoolers are Christians who perceive the public education system asteaching a belief system that is counter to or anti-Christian in nature. This section of the review examined the literature relatedto objections to home schooling. Bolick, C. This section of the review examined the history of homeschooling in America. Mayberry, M. Home instruction: An analysis of the statutes and case law.University of Dayton Law Review, 8, 13-14. As to reasons for this shift, U.S. Paperpresented at the Annual Conference of the American Educational ResearchAssociation (Chicago, IL, April 3 - 7). Paperpresented at the Annual conference of the Southern Regional Council onEducational Administration (Knoxville, TN, November13 - 15). He found thatcreativity was negatively correlated with the number of years the child hadbeen home schooled. Treaty proposed for adoption by theUnited States Congress. All discussed objections were discussed in terms of the degree ofsupport evidenced for them in the literature. Home schooling. News & World Report, 111(24), 66-8 . . In math, 79 percent of the students were at or above their gradelevel. The same applies to individual subjects which more often than not rigorously follow the public school schedule. He stated that the research suggeststhat home schoolers generally do as well or better than students attendingpublic school on measures of cognitive outcomes. & Marek, E.A. As noted earlier, the bulk of parents choosing to home school areChristian. (1985). But what is important to realize here is that the controversy is nota matter of the public schools failing to teach children specificallyChristian values and beliefs but rather it is a matter of the publicschools teaching a view that inherently assumes that such beliefs as Jesusbeing the only path to salvation are erroneous, provincial, ethnocentric,and so forth. Wartes (1987, 1988) conducted two studies of home schooling.Findings showed that home schooled students' (N=1,299) SAT scores wereconsistently above national norms with their median score being at the 68thpercentile level. According toCarrere, parents who choose to teach their children at home havetraditionally done so for moral or religious reasons, or because theyconsider the public schools too conservative or traditional. (1923). New Hampshire Homeschooling Coalition. (1988). (4) Calhoun County Department of Education vs. In line with the findings of Ray (1989b),generalizations were indeed difficult to formulate due to the wide variancein state legislation and court litigation. In an interesting study by Lines (1981), an attempt was made toreview the various state laws and regulations concerning home schooling andarrive at generalizations. 1) McGee feels that the early cases showed a clear consistency ofthought but that recent litigation is less balanced and consistent. Self-concept in home-school children. the recent renaissance of home education is actually the closing of a circle, a return to the philosophy which prevailed in an earlier America. Barrett (1985) has attempted to answer the foregoing question.specifically, she recommends that there be measures to permit homeschooling, to mandate increased parental involvement in schools, and toestablish tuition tax credits and a voucher system. Wartes, J. one of the leading proponents of home education is John Holt. ERIC DOCUMENT ERIC ED 253 939. Reynolds, P.L. Paper presentedat the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (SanFrancisco, CA: March 27 - 31). Home education andconstitutional liberties: The Rutherford Institute Report, Vol. Yoder (1972) - The court overturned a statuteforbidding religious education at home. Thesebenefits were said to include factors such as delivery of immediatefeedback in the learning environment, increased ability to shape children'scharacter development toward family values and religious beliefs, abilityto spend more time with children, and ability to live a more independentlifestyle. (2) Parents must maintain a portfolio of records and materialsrelative to their home education program. According to interviewees, independent and intuitive decision-making about curricular materials and other educational matters characterized their early days of home schooling. In her study of compulsory education laws and home schooling, Lines(1985) suggested that most parents remove their children from schoolbecause they are disillusioned with the existing system, anddisenfranchised with respect to changing it. Home educated children's social/emotionaladjustment and academic achievement: A comparative study. (5) While there has always been constitutional support for theparental decision to home educate, laws regarding the standards to be metby home schoolers vary widely across states. 391) Because Holt's thoughts are so often used as a foundation for thehome schooling argument, some criticisms are directed at his views. Ray (1986) presented a comprehensive review of studies examining forthe effectiveness of home schooling. This supportresource, Preiss states, should function as both a repository for, anddispenser of home-schooling information. 1). Ray, B.D. Holt feels that it is through warm, loving, parentalinteraction with children in their learning experiences that they can bestlearn. Christian education too often is a clone of the public school agenda, plus an added-on Bible course. Home schooling: A questionof quality, an issue of rights. (5) the spiritual unity of believers in our Lord Jesus Christ. In such cases, the judge can thenapply the dispositional rule of deciding what is in the best interests ofthe child. For example, while all parents in the study were religiouslycommitted and highly orthodox, almost the entire sample was Republican andconservative; indeed, only 7 percent of the sample identified themselves asDemocratic and only 5 percent identified themselves as liberal. Paper presented at the AnnualMeeting of the American Educational Research Association (Boston: MA, April16-2 ). Despite Williams' (1991) and Grover and Endsley's (1988) findings ofnegative outcomes, several studies have found home schooling to be relatedto strong academic achievement (Ray, 199 ). Paperpresented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational ResearchAssociation (Chicago, IL:, April 3 - 7). (1983). (1986). Nashville, TN: TDE. According to the New Hampshire Homeschooling Coalition (1991),several requirements must be followed by parents electing to home schooltheir children in the State of New Hampshire.These can be summarized as follows: (1) Parents must notify the commissioner of education or otherspecified authorities of their intention to home teach. (1983). (1986). Seuffert (199 ) discussed her experience with home schooling. Tennessee statewideaverages, home-school student test results, Stanford Achievement Test,Grades 2, 5, 7 and 9. To most Christians choosing to home educate, this proclamation offaith serves not only as the foundation of their religious beliefs but alsoas the foundation of their educational commitment. Further, there must be exposure to artand music. In general,findings showed that: (1) Home school parents were high salaried, college-trained at youngadult professionals living in the suburbs with an average of threechildren; in addition, most tended to rigorously monitortheir children's television-viewing. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Ball State University,Muncie, IN. However, Mayberry (1991) reports that in her study of 582families offering home education for stated religious purposes, she foundthat it was difficult to separate parental religious perspectives fromtheir political orientation. Doctoral dissertation. A comparison of home schooling and conventionalschooling with a focus on learner outcomes. Ray, B.D. Self-concept in home schooling. Henderson (1991) conducted anextensive review of the kind of legislation passed in most states. The legal precedents and cases involving home schoolingthroughout the twentieth century were also discussed. (3) Jesus Christ as deity, born of a virgin, living a sinless life,who atoned for sins through the crucifixion, rose again from the dead, sitsat the right hand side of the Father, and who will return to earth in powerand glory. ERICDOCUMENT ERIC ED 25 766. (1985). The point was made that the right of parents toschool their children was recognized and exercised both before and afterthe drawing up and signing of the United States Constitution. In addition to interview data, beliefs and practices wereanalyzed from documents, newsletters, and observations. (1991). (p.1) A year later, Van Galen (1987) re-analyzed data for purposes ofdetermining ideological frameworks and contexts. ERIC DOCUMENT ERIC ED 218 8 1. Pierce vs. This section of the review examined motivations to homeeducate. When responses to the instruments were compared, the authors foundthat while home schooling parents agreed with all but one of the benefitslisted, superintendents disagreed, with all but two of these same benefits. Thus,the state's basic prosecuting argument has been the duty of education forthe general public good. Second,she observed that both groups were roughly equal in their leadershipabilities. Holtasserts that public education runs contrary to the way children learn; andthat, moreover, the way public schools work--with their pattern of rewards,penalties, and punishments--does not really fit children for real-worldoperation. (199 ). A good summary of the essential sides of the home educationcontroversy has been provided by Nelson (1986). Wartes, J. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, BrighamYoung University, Provo, UT. 2Westchester, ILL: Crossway Books. (1987). Ray, B.D. Webb, J. However, VanGalen (1987) stated that this argument is not supported by any existingresearch. . If there is any general tendency, McGee statesthat it is the tendency for the courts to uphold existing standards and tomake state legislatures responsible for defining the key issues. Home-based boys made significantly greater language gains than home- or center-based girls (p. Williams, D.D. ERIC DOCUMENT ED 323 27. Seuffert, V. Home School Researcher, 5(1),1-1 . Ray, B.D. 174) The essential factor in Pride's reasoning lies in the phrase "thecurrent counter-Christian culture." Most Christians who withdraw theirchildren from public school and place them in either private school or homeschool, do so because they feel that the culture supported by the publiceducation system is, in fact, counter to or anti-Christian. The review covers severalaspects of this literature. (1986). opposing home schooling is rarely fruitful; supporting home schoolers can improve public relations; home schooling offers otherwise unobtainable insights into child learning; and home schooled students participating in district programs may contribute to attendance figures. Home school survey (Available from The HomeSchool Legal Defense Association, Paeonian Springs, VA 22129). 22. The defense against regulations mandating publiceducation as fulfilling the general good has been the right of parentalauthority which has traditionally resulted in restriction on state publiceducation mandates. In this regard, it waspointed out that. The outcomes of home-based education: Employmentand other issues. An analysis of home schooling for elementaryschool-age children in Alabama. One of the objections to home schooling is that due to parents notbeing certified educators, children will be academically disadvantaged.Frost (1988) reviewed four studies designed to test the validity of thisobjection. This final section is included becausethe proposed study shall examine home schooling in the state of NewHampshire and this section will therefore provide context for the setting. Subjects in the study were 88 families drawn from thestate-run K-12 Centralized Correspondence Study program. Lines noted that in virtuallyevery state, enforcement of minimum standards for private education andhome schools comes through compulsory attendance laws but that these lawsvary greatly from state to state. In cases where ajuvenile commits a crime, the predicate finding is some sort of familyfailure such as child abuse or neglect. Understanding home education: Case studies ofhome schools. Also, when computed for a sample of public school students,correlations between TTCT was found to be positively correlated with thenumber of years the child had spent in conventional schools. Data were collected through a checklistcontaining ten reasons for home schooling as well as an attitude surveylisting twenty benefits of home schooling. However, not all studies do. Home education: Characteristics of its familiesand schools. (5) Most parents were satisfied with their home schools, were notinfluenced by home school organizations, and had not been bothered byauthorities. (3) Most home schools emphasized language arts and arithmetic andused Christian instructional materials. In other words, home schooling once again was not found to beassociated with socialization deficiencies. Findingssuggested that the home educated group was less influenced by peers thanthe private school group. (1989). Ray feelsthis is especially true with respect to level of structure in the homeschool. Theeffects of home-based and center-based teaching strategies on Head StartChildren's Language Development. An overview of home schooling in the UnitedStates: Its growth and development and future challenges. Concord, NH: New Hampshire Homeschooling Coalition. Tobak, T. Limited testing suggests that most alternatives are educationally adequate. This section of the study attempted to provide a briefoverview of the status of home schooling in New Hampshire. Dupont-de-Nemours, P.S. Some authors have stated that they object to educational alternativesto the public school system because the only ones who can use suchalternatives are parents with money (Bolick, 199 ). On the other side are those (mostly public school educators) whofeel that home education, when compared to what is offered by the publicschool system, lacks opportunities for socialization as well as learningopportunities. West's Education Law Reporter, 64(4),999-1 14. (1989). The final point discussed was related to future difficulties thatmight be faced by home schoolers. Mahan, B.M. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the AmericanEducational Research Association (New Orleans, LA, April 23 - 27). These include: (1) the names, addresses, and telephone numbers of theorganization's Board of Governors and Committee Chairs; (2) the names, addresses, and telephone numbers of home schoolsupport groups; (3) information on electronic bulletin board services for parentswith access to a PC; (4) information on Lifeway Educational Resources, a non-denominational ministry serving Christian schools and Christian families'home school needs; (5) a list of the names, addresses, and telephone numbers of theHome Education Advisory Council (HEAC) created by the New Hampshirelegislature for the purpose of advising the Commissioner of Education onmatters related to home schooling; (6) information about the National Center for Home Education (NCHE),a ministry of HSLDA with the goal of offering services which home schoolingfamilies could not provide for themselves; (7) information about the National Home Education Institute, a re-search organization investigating issues relevant to home schooling. (199 ). Schools and home schoolers: A fruitfulpartnership. Several studies (e.g.Alaska Department of Education, 1985; Falle, 1988) found that home schooledstudents scored significantly higher on measures of achievement (e.g. Parents in the home based group received weekly instruction outliningteaching procedures for a language skill their child had not developed fora period of seven months. 51 , 534-35.Preiss, J.S. because of the growth of alternative educational arrangements, the states with the strictest laws may soon be faced with challenges to their compulsory attendance regulations. of 1985. In this regard, it can be noted that severalstudies do support such a shift (e.g. The result was that twopublic schools had to close due to reduced student bodies and when, later,they reopened, it was with new staff and programs. Summary. In addition, an article in U.S. (1988). She found that all of those in hersample who attempted higher education at a college or university weresuccessful. He points out that on theone side are home schooling parents who state that they choose to educatetheir children at home for the sake of security, morality, and educationalquality. (1991). Also, the courts are said to haveindicated that in particular situations some families can be excused froman otherwise constitutional compulsory attendance law. In 33 percent of the families, the reason forhome schooling was due to the fact that the student was not living near aschool nor was he/she served by bus transportation. An example of Holt's views are set forth in a 1983 article whereinHolt discusses why public schools should cooperate with local familieseducating their children at home. (2) Most of the home schools had operated under three years usingthe mother as the primary teacher; also, most students were elementary ormiddle-school level students who had previously attended either a public ora Christian school, and were enthusiastic about their home schoolenvironment. Moreover, she claims that very few schools are reallypluralistic and very few are really successful at teaching more than facts. (1987). . Parents' major concerns about the home schooling process were foundto include: fear and self-doubt, social isolation, exhaustion, separatinghome from school, achieving a balance between structure and spontaneity,measuring progress, spouse roles, undesirable child behaviors, the teachingof independence, materials, children's socialization, insufficientresources, and apparent lack of progress. (1987). Findings showed that the homeenvironments of academically motivated parents were more intellectuallystimulating than the home environments of belief motivated parents.However, no findings of whether students actually manifested intellectualdifferences were reported. Working paper. Whitehead, J.W. For Christian home schoolers, support is available through theChristian Home Educators of New Hampshire (CHENH). Barrett further feels that schools should be notified of seriouscrimes committed by students, that there should be restriction of access toschool premises, and the establishment of a mandatory school crimereporting system. ERIC DOCUMENT ERIC ED 253 963. (2) Over the last thirty years America has been experiencing anincrease in the number of parents electing to home educate their children. University ofAlabama, Tuscaloosa. (3) Parents must provide for an annual evaluation of the child'seducational progress at a level commensurate with the child's age andability. Christian education won't be Christian until we let the Bible, not bureaucrats, determine its content. Perhaps this is nowhere better seen than in a studyconducted by Mahan and Ware (1987) comparing the attitudes of homeschoolers and public school superintendents. Falle, B. 1) Because Christian families comprise the bulk of homeschoolers,understanding their reasons for making this choice amounts to understandingthe bulk of home schooling selection. Washington Homeschool Research Project Reportfrom the 1986 Homeschool Testing and Other Descriptive Information AboutWashington's Homeschoolers. (5) There are several objections to home schooling, the two mostfrequently cited ones being those of socialization difficulties and lowquality education; however, the existing literature did not offer supportfor these concerns. Effectiveness of Home Schooling The research on home schooling is plenteous; and most of it supportsthe effectiveness of home schooling. News & World Report (December 9,1991) states: A steady stream of reports from the nation's classrooms about drugs, violence, bureaucratic bloat and ill-educated students is eroding public confidence in the American tradition of common schooling . Hestated that the courts are now paying more attention to specific standardsand requirements in compulsory education cases and deciding them strictlyon a case-by-case basis. 22. (1986). Summary. Lines, P. Reasons whyChristian families sometimes choose home education over a private Christianschool education were also discussed. Illinois School Research and Development, 24(3), 111-117. Summary. Shefeels that many parents choose to home educate because, unlike the regularschool system, parents can provide children with immediate feedbackregarding the subject matter, thereby increasing their learning of thematerial. On the other hand, state compulsory attendance laws have been basedon the desire to "Americanize" immigrants, the consideration for thewelfare of the child and the community, and the safety of the state. Oregon Department of Education, (1988). Case studies of four families engaged inhome education. Becoming home schoolers. Many parents choose home schooling for religious reasons, that is,for the purposes of providing education that is commingled with religiousprinciples. Also, home educated students were more likely toperceive their parents as primary authority figures than were privateschool students. Bolick, 199 ; Grover & Endsley, 1988;Mayberry, 1991; Williams, 1991). In an even more extensive study, Scogin (1986) conducted a survey ofa random sample of 241 home-schooled children. The effect of home schooling on theleadership skills of home-schooled students. (p. (7) Home schooling appears to be effective in terms of academicachievement, cognitive development, and socialization. Specifically, Webb examined the adult lives of people who wereeither wholly or partly home educated. Summary. Findings showed that when compared to their conventionalschool counterparts, home schoolers had significantly more positive self-concepts as measured by the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale. The factthat most parents chose to school (as well as the fact that home schoolingwas successful) can be seen in a comment purported to have been made byJohn Adams who said that a person who could not read and write in NewEngland of 1765 was as rare as a comet (Dupont-de-Nemours, 1923). Grover, S.V. . Thepoint was also made that there appears to be a good deal of animosity andhostility between home schoolers and public education officials, especiallyon the part of educational authorities. Van Galen (1986) found that most parents generally learn about homeschooling through people, events, and media that are central to theirestablished lifestyles. Other than necessity, enrollment in home study ranged from the beliefthat home study provided more opportunity for learning life skills andspiritual values to the need for the family to continue schooling whiletraveling. Many told of emotionally committing themselves to the decision soon after learning that this would be possible. (1988). She suggests that parents electingto home school their children should look for some form of support systemto help them comply with their state's various regulations. Williams, L.T. Gladin, E.W. However, Ray (1989) has stated that whilethere is variance in reasons for home schooling: . AsMcGee (1987) puts it: Whereas early-day legal action usually sought to protect the rights of some select group from constitutional infringement, more recent suits have sought to protect individuals desiring to teach their children at home. Home schooling, what's that? (7) that children are a gift of the Lord and are entrusted toparents who are accountable to God to provide them with godly training anddiscipline. (4) the resurrection of the saved and the lost; the damnationof the unsaved. In general, this literature was found to behighly supportive of home education as shown by findings that home schoolsare at or above average on achievement tests, and on cognitive andintellectual development tests. Educational Forum, 55(1), 67-77. (4) Most families began home schooling as a result of religiousconvictions and concerns about the effects of peer pressure on theirchildren. Farris notes that legally the "best interests of the child" is whatis known as a dispositional rule, or a rule which the court employs after apredicate finding has been made. The literature on the legal aspects of home schoolingshowed that while there has been consistent judicial support for parent'sconstitutional right to home educate, laws and statutes related tostandards that must be met by home schoolers vary greatly from state tostate, so much so that it is difficult to arrive at generalizations thatare valid across states. However, Kilgorestates that a good deal of research has found just the opposite; that is,research tends to be supportive of the notion that home schoolers arebetter educated and better socialized than their public schoolcounterparts. (4) If there is evidence that parents are not meeting home educationrequirements, they must be notified and are then entitled to due process,and appeal once a ruling is made. Delahooke, M.M. (1988). She found that parents'beliefs fell into two categories: (1) Ideological - Ideological parents were characterized as thosewho, when discussing the need for home schooling, framed their argument toeducators as one of whether parents or public officials should determinewhat children are taught. Also, the opinionsof state and local education officials involved with home schooling weresolicited. Based onthese findings, Mayberry (1991) concluded that: . Every week, parents followed these instructionalguidelines and recorded their child's daily progress. National education in the UnitedStates of America. He suggestedthat the literature showed that home educated children often scored equalto or better than their conventional school peers on measures of cognitiveachievement. (1991). (1985). The CHENH also provides a "statement of faith" which is important inthat it provides the philosophical basis that characterizes the generalthrust of parents who pull their children out of the public educationalsystem for religious reasons (and thus it gives insight into the thoughtsystem and decision-making processes of the sample of Christian familiesthat will be observed in the proposed study). Westchester,ILL: Crossway Books. Most families planned to continue correspondence study butnonetheless adopted a year-to-year approach to enrollment. A report of North Carolina homes schoolparents on certain variables associated with social studies instruction.ERIC DOCUMENT ERIC ED 32 789. Compulsory education laws and their impact onpublic and private education. . Objections to Home Schooling In their discussion of home schooling, Rakestraw and Rakestraw (199 )note that: Parental freedom to teach their children at home has been promoted as a right that a democratic society should allow. ERIC DOCUMENT ED 3 1 925. Students in the study were between the ages of 1 and 21.First, Montgomery found that home schoolers engage in as many social andgroup activities as do students who are conventionally schooled. (1981). Rakestraw, J.F. It was pointed out that mostof these families live in the suburbs, have an average of three childrenwho are being schooled at the elementary or middle-school age, utilize themother as teacher, are enthusiastic about home schooling, have graveconcerns regarding public education, have learned about home schoolingthrough various religious organizations and media, and sometimes over-relyon recitation and questioning as instructional strategies. Lines (1981) concluded that: . One such entanglement is discussed by Farris(1991) who states that there can be future legal problems centering aroundArticle 3 of the controversial U.N. Specifically, she states that theprimary curricular objective is to give children those tools they need tofulfill the New Testament commandments to love and serve God and neighbor.Thus, curricular elements, in addition to academic subjects and materials,become the Bible, prayer, and morals. (1986). Society of Sisters (1925). The CHENH (1991) also provides a directory of resources for bothChristian schools and Christian families choosing to home school theirchildren. Home-schooling: Reasons someparents choose this alternative form of education, and a study of attitudesof home-schooling parents and public school superintendents toward thebenefits of home schooling. Treaty, the attempts are being made to make "the best interests of thechild" substantive law rather than a dispositional rule which is to saythat it is an attempt to make it legal for the court to substitute itsjudgment,of what would be best for a child in place of the judgments madeby parents without first finding some family failure. Compulsory education: An overview of the law.ERIC DOCUMENT ERIC ED 285 249. In addition, home schooled children were often more sociallyand emotionally mature than children going to public schools. The authors found no significant differences between the two groups.In addition, they observed that home educated students began formal thoughtoperations somewhere between the ages of 1 and 11 whereas the nationalaverage for the beginning of formal thought is between 15 and 2 . Ziegelman (1986) statedthat: In general, the study demonstrated that the weekly parent- teaching home-based program had a significantly greater effect on children's language development than the class-oriented center-based program. Van Galen states that most conflict between schools and homeschooling parents boils down to a power struggle. . In this regard, Pride (1988) hasnoted that Christians choose either home schooling or private Christianschooling over public schooling in order to provide their children witheducation which is not rooted in humanistic or behavioral content butrather in Bible content. Van Galen used the participant observation method and conductedinterviews with both home schoolers (23 families) and educators over an 18-month period. Newark, DEL: University of Delaware Press. Williams (1984) reported the findings of an intensive study of homeschooling families. Also, they arefamilies who tend to strictly monitor their children's television watching. & Ware, B.J. (1984). . An interesting point made by Ray (1989b) is that due to the manydifferences in legal regulations, and statutes in states, there is reallyno way that generalizations about home schooling can be said to be valid.In other words, there are always exceptions and plenty of them. (1984). New Hampshire HomeEducation Guidebook. Historical Aspects of Home Schooling Tobak and Zirkel (1982) reported that in colonial Americaresponsibility for the education of children was invested in parents, somuch so that parents not only had the authority to school their children,they had the authority to choose not to school their children. We sanitize the public school courses, add some Christian history, and word problems back in, and mix in devotions. He states: . Unpublisheddoctoral dissertation. Moreover, theiracademic orientation is essentially the same as that of the public school.As Pride (1988) puts it: . educational policy makers need to understand the importance that home school parents attach to family value systems and ways of life. The Washington home-school project: Quantitativemeasures for informing policy decisions. The sample was drawn fromthe population of home schoolers across the United States. Moreover, she suggestslegislation to establish alternatives to teacher certification and to moreeffective school discipline that would strengthen penalties for schoolviolence. Whitehead and Bird (1984) have noted that in the first two centuriesof America's existence, courts traditionally upheld the right of parents tohome school; and that, moreover, this tradition of the courts supportinghome schooling has continued on through the twentieth century. She feels that homeschooling is far broader in scope than an educational debate. Research methods involved: (1) informal descriptionsof home schools and their participants through existing research; and (2)case studies of several families at various stages in the home schoolingprocess. . ERICDOCUMENT ED 255 494. Frost, G. In one such study,Gladin (1987) surveyed a random sample of 416 drawn from 6,85 familieslisted in the Bob Jones University Press home school mailing list. Inthis regard, Pride states that many parents choose home school over theprivate Christian school because too often private Christian schools arenot fully Bible based but instead rely on many of the practices andphilosophies of the public school. Lines also foundthat in state court litigation concerning the legitimacy of religiousschools, there was great variation with the courts sometimes emphasizingthe interests of the state and other times emphasizing the individualsinterest in the free exercise of religion. Schmidt (1989) states that not only isthis shift occurring but that it has been going on over the last thirtyyears and has now become so prevalent that the number of children who werehome educated during the 198 s reached over one million. In studies examining the social maturity of home schoolers, Taylor(1986a, 1986b) studied a random sample of American home schooled students(Grades 4 to 12). Franzosa, S.D. Montgomery, L. Phi Delta Kappan, 64(6), 391-394. A blueprint for educational reform. Scogin, L.A. Education and Urban Society,21(1), 42-51. Treaty, home schoolers may befaced with the judicial decision of what is in the best interests of achild becoming substantive law rather than remaining an existingdispositional rule of law. (1987). . Further, homeschoolers who attemptedcollege were all found to be successful. The authorsprove their point by citing several court cases, some of which arepresented below: (1) Farrington v. For example, many private Christianschools set up environments based on behavioral theory. Even as late as 1925, the right of parents to educate their childrenwas upheld by the Supreme Court. In an effort to more thoroughly understand this group, VanGalen (1986) conducted an ethnographic study of how fundamentalistChristian parents new to home schooling are socialized to norms, beliefs,and values of the Christian home schooling organizations with which theyaffiliate. Roberts (1963) - The court upheld the right ofhome education stating that as long as children are educated, they mayreceive that education any way parents choose; be that choice a publicschool, a private school, or at home. Ziegelman (1986) examined for the effectiveness of home schooling onchildren's preschool language skill development. (6) Future battles faced by home schoolers may be related to effortsto make the "best interests of the child" decision a matter of substantivelaw rather than a dispositional rule of law. ERIC DOCUMENTERIC ED 324 741. It was found thathome study families tend to live in both rural and urban areas of Alaska.In most cases, classes were taught by the mother who utilized a flexibleschedule but somewhat over-relied on reciting and questioning asinstructional strategies. (p.66) Marshner (1984) has listed several reasons parents are sufficientlydisillusioned with public education so as to consider private school orhome school. Ray, B.D. No government official should be permitted to inflict his view of "best" on a child and his family unless there has first been a predicate finding of family failure. (p. Schmidt, S.T. In other words, God isviewed as pervasive and His Truth seen as part and parcel of all learning.Clearly, the conventional public school is not based on these principles. However, what reforms would make the system moreappealing? Kilgore (1987) examined the motivations of several home schoolingfamilies living in Maine. In particular, Frost recommended that public schooladministrators assist home schooling parents with curricular materials,library usage, testing and extracurricular involvements. Specifically, the authors compared a sample ofhome educated students' intellectual development to a sample of studentsattending Pathways Schools-schools specifically designed to promoteintellectual development. the primary motivation for home schoolers today is their desire to teach Christian values to their children. (1987). School proof: How to help your family beat thesystem and learn to love learning--The easy, natural way. & Endsley, R.C. While Barrett's recommendations would clearly assist in bringing backthe children of parents who are disillusioned with public education forsocio-political reasons and would work to help parents have more impact onthe system; it is unclear as to whether they would attract parents whoremove their children from school for religious reasons. Legal Aspects of Home Schooling As discussed earlier, home education is a basic constitutional right;however, states typically are allowed to provide some legislation regardinghow home schooling is to be accomplished. Taylor, J.W. Insight into the historical argument between home schoolers and theeducational system is found in an article by Carrere (1983). (1991). Carrere, T.A. Findings showed six categories of motivation for home schooling:unsuitability of children for regular school; desire of parents forcontrol; socialization; conceptualization of the learning process; ideasabout content; and personal interest. These purposes are: (1) provide leadership and support to Christian home-schoolingfamilies, churches and associations; (2) coordinate a state-wide network of home-schooling informationand resources; (3) represent its membership to the State educational authorities,as provided by New Hampshire law; (4) keep members informed of state and national legislation thataffects home education; and (5) provide representation to regional and national Christian homeeducation organizations. Home study in Alaska: A profile ofK-12 students in the Alaska centralized correspondence study program. . There is a possibility that legal entanglements over home schoolingwill persist in future. Sheffer feels that the outcomes of home schooling are sufficientlybeneficial that public school educators could benefit from theirconsultation. (Rakestraw & Rakestraw, 199 , p.67)The authors feel that unless these issues are dealt with in both thejudicial and legislative systems of government, children are at risk of lowquality education due to such factors as parents failing to cover all ofthe various knowledge bases needed to successfully compete in modernsociety. However, Bolickreports that East Harlem provided poor parents with choice through the useof tax credits, vouchers, and home schooling. Home Schooling in New Hampshire In New Hampshire, home education is legally defined as a planned andsupervised instruction with curriculum in science, math, language,government, history, health, reading, writing and spelling. The best and wisest parent: A critique ofJohn Holt I s philosophy of education. Family environment andattitudes of homeschoolers and non-homeschoolers. New Hampshire's Department of Education also provides a pamphletspecifying the regulations and procedures for home education programs.Among the topics covered in the pamphlet are regulations and proceduresrelevant to authority, eligibility, exemptions, general requirements andhow to complete them, due process, and recommended standards. (199 ). Lines, P.M. Key cases weresummarized. Education source book: The state legislators'guide for reform. Also, Seuffert states that home schooling allows parents toshape their child's character development toward family values andreligious beliefs. Henderson, D.H. (1989). Profile of families who home school in Maine.ERIC DOCUMENT ERIC ED 295 28 . Thisstatement of faith was included to provide insight into the philosophicalbasis underlying Christian families' decision to home school. Inthis regard, Franzosa (1984) has stated that Holt's proposals reflect aromantic conception of the private family as well as an unfounded pessimismabout the possibility of school reform. The two most common objections were that:(1) home education is of a lower quality than school education; and (2)home schooled children experience socialization problems and difficultiesrelated to their being isolated from school peers. In addition, Ray reported that theemotional maturity of home schooled students appears to be as high as thoseschooled conventionally. (p. . Also, Ray stated thatevidence supports the notion that most home school students score wellabove average on achievement tests. References Alaska Department of Education, (1985). Holt, J. ERIC DOCUMENT ED 287 6 6.----------------------- 47 Social capital, value consistency and theachievement outcomes of home education. He states that the home schooling movement isassociated with diverse reasons such as religious views, pursuit ofindependent lifestyles, and the desire to spend more time with children.However, Kilgore points out that no matter how different parental reasonsfor choosing to home school, all home schoolers share the belief that theexisting public education system does not provide a healthy learningenvironment for children; and most want more control over their children'slearning and development. Until theconflict of these faiths is brought out in the open and the educationalsystem recognizes that its view does run counter to and, if accepted,nullifies many of the beliefs of Christian families, it is unlikely thatthe problem will be resolved. This section of the review examined studies of thecharacteristics of home schooling families. 2668 U.S. Moreover, where relevant, academicsubjects are taught with an emphasis on underlying Bible principles; e.g.American history would be taught with an emphasis on the Christian roots ofthe country's institutions and government. Education and Urban Society, 21(1),16-31. Based on analyses of these studies, Frost concluded that homeschooled students are not necessarily academically disadvantaged andadvocated that public school administrators work with instead of againsthome schoolers. Members of thecenter-based group received class instruction and were periodically testedin a classroom situation. Home remedy: A mom's prescription for ailingschools. (1985). Taylor, J.W.(1986b). There are, however, indications that home schooling may not fostercreativity as well as does public schooling, and that parents who homeschool for academic reasons may provide more academically stimulatingenvironments than do parents who home school for other reasons. Summary. California School of Professional Psychology, LosAngeles. Solutions,she feels, must address parents' general and broad concerns about theirchildren's education as well as the weaknesses of the public educationsystem. The Teaching Home, 9(5), p. The existing research (seeresearch on the effectiveness of home schooling) does not really supportthis argument. The reviewed literature gives the impression of great diversity ofmotivation for home schooling. Juneau, AK: ADE. Of such attempts, Farris states: A judgment of what is "best" is wholly subjective. (Mayberry, 1991, p.1) As for reasons why parents chose home schooling, Mayberry found thatthe most frequently cited rationales included low confidence in the publiceducation system as well as other institutions (especially those oforganized religion), parental feelings of inability to influence the publiceducation system, and opposition to the ideological foundation of publiceducation. (1986). (3) Wisconsin vs. These include: (1) historical aspects of homeschooling; (2) reasons why parents choose to home school; (3)characteristics of families electing to home school (4) objections of thepublic education system to home schooling; (5) legal aspects of homeschooling; (6) research on the effectiveness of home schooling; and (7)home schooling in New Hampshire. Private education alternatives and stateregulation. The literature did not support the notion of employmentdiscrimination of home schoolers. Also, there is a fear that if too many parents elect to home educate,there will be a drop in state aid due to lower enrollment. Urban Education, 19(3) 227-244. A primer on choice in education: Part I -- how it works. Page (1983) TheSouth Carolina court upheld parental liberty to home school as a "basicconstitutional liberty" guaranteed by the United States Constitution andthe fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution. Farris, M. Mahan and Ware's (1987) study surveyed parents who home-schooledtheir children and public school superintendents in a five country area inMidwestern and southwestern Ohio. (2) Commonwealth vs. there is not much research support for the arguments. Heconcluded that most of these laws relate to six specific areas: (1) thehome instructors' qualifications; (2) curriculum; (3) amount of dailyinstructional time; (4) the number of instructional days during the year;(5) required standardized tests; And (6) parental reports to verify legalcompliance. (1986). Van Galen, J.A. & Rakestraw, D.A. This section of the review examined research related tohome schooling effectiveness. Specifically, McGee reportedthat state compulsory attendance statutes require parents and legalguardians to make sure that their children are educated and that while mostcases involving compulsory education used to be cases in which parents werenot providing any education to their children, times have changed. Further, she stated that: Parents' decision to teach their own children is rarely a culmination of long and careful deliberation. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.