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Paper Abstract: Major psychological & sociological theories (social control, learning, interactional), significance of family, function of gangs, intervention & treatment. Paper Introduction: Gangs and Gang Delinquency Introduction Gangs and gang violence have been topics of documentaries, television shows, motion pictures, and magazine articles. Academic theorists and researchers expressed considerable concern about the problem in the 1950's and 1960's but showed little interest in solving it in the following decades, so literature on gangs since the early 1960's is sparse (Spergel, 1986; Fox, 1985). This paper will summarize the major theoretical concepts related to male gang delinquency with an emphasis on analyzing how theory and research on family treatment of delinquent youths can apply to the gang phenomenon. This is somewhat problematic since the research and theoretical writing on gangs is Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. Although various theorists use theories of juvenile delinquency toexplain gang delinquency, the form of group delinquency or what the natureof a group brings to delinquency remains a relatively barren field ofresearch (Maxson et al., 1985). Impact of family systems intervention on recidivism and sibling delinquency. The literature on GuidedGroup Interaction has demonstrated that it has been beneficial but notconsistently and that further experiments need to be done (Atwood & Osgood,1987; Gottfredson, 1987). Berkeley: University of California Press.Janesksela, G.M. According to Binder and Binder (1983), "Goddard in 1921, Burtin 1925, Merrill in 1947, Hathaway and Monachesi in 1957, and Conger andMiller in 1966 (among many others) assessed the psychologicalcharacteristics of delinquents, with particular emphasis upon intelligenceduring this period of knowledge building. Journal ofAbnormal Psychology, 16: 127-39.Long, S., & Sherer, M. The psychologists havesought to identify individual characteristics of juveniles that would causethem to become delinquent. Cohen (1955) viewed the gang as a model of reaction andadjustment to a dominant middle-class society that discriminates againstgang members because they are not adequately equipped to fulfill statusrequirements although they are exposed to middle class aspirations andvalues. Social control theory as presented by Hirschi (1969) argues thatdelinquency is inherent in human personality and that social and culturalrestraints prevent individuals from acting on deviant impulses.Delinquency emerges when these social and cultural restraints on conductare substantially attenuated. "Several longitudinal studies provideevidence supporting the predictive association between poor parentaldisciplinary practices during childhood and incidence of later delinquentbehavior" (Quay, 1987, p. (1969). Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 16: 3-27.Fagan, J. Residence and territorialityin gangs. Violent delinquents and urbanyouths. Quay (1987) wrote that, to develop causal paths, the variablesthought to cause delinquency would need to be identified and then familiesat risk would be randomly assigned to a treatment and no-treatment groups.The treatment group would receive an intervention powerful enough tosignificantly alter the family or parenting variables. (1987). Criminology, 25: 671-714.Gruher, M. The research tended to include statusoffenders, first-time offenders, or "pre-delinquent" youths (Alexander &Parsons, 1973; Beal & Duckro, 1977; Alexander, Barton, Schiavo, & Parsons,1976; Weathers & Liberman, 1975; Klein et al., 1977; Gruher, 1979; Carillet al., 1983). Offense specialisation and versatility amongjuveniles. Behavioral Therapy, 6: 356-366.Wright, W., & Dixon, M. (1983). (1984). Gangs and Delinquency Gang delinquency, may be considered a sub-type of juveniledelinquency, and theories of delinquency have been applied to youth gangs."The major body of a sociological theory about gangs was developed from aworld now long vanished - the Chicago of the 192 's" (Moore, Vigil, &Garcia, 1983, p. (1987). This wouldthen identify the quantitative and qualitative differences between gang andnon-gang delinquents alluded to by Maxson et al. Journal of Consulting andClinical Psycology, 44: 656-664.Alexander, J.F., & Parsons, B.V. Accelerated family interventionin juvenile justice: An exploration and recommendation for constraint.Crime and Delinquency, 25: 497-5 2.California Council on Criminal Justice State Task Force on Youth Gang Violence. Practitioners try everything when working with gangdelinquents because of the lack of practice models proven to be effectivewith this population. Another area completely ignored in the theories of delinquency andmentioned only descriptively in the gang literature is the issue ofterritoriality. The current practicemodels used in the area of juvenile delinquency have been developed andtested empirically on samples of mostly "soft" delinquents. Journal of Marriage and Family Counseling, 3: 77-81.Binder, A. But, as stated early, this process is unknown. The methodology used to evaluate these programs therefore wouldneed to analyze the general reduction of gang activity in the area as wellas, if possible, reduction of gang activity by individuals. The majorvariables included are parental monitoring, social skills, academic skills,contact with delinquent peers, and delinquent behavior. (1987). (1979). Within this subculture, youths learn, practice, andreinforce delinquent behavior, a process related to learning theory. Social Work, 3 : 25-31.Gibbons, D. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16: 89-95.Quay, H. "Family therapy with delinquents is a relatively new field. Theearliest research appeared in the late 6 's" (Tolan et al., 1986, p. Currently, SoutheastAsian youth gangs and heavy metal, punk rockers, and satanic groups haveemerged as relatively new gang phenomena, in Los Angeles. This construct needs to be conceptually defined andapplied to theories explaining gang development and delinquency. However, these quantitative andqualitative differences are often ignored in theories about delinquency.This issue is particularly relevant to the subject of gang delinquencybecause the more serious and violent nature of gangs has not been addressedin the theories. Research of this type needs to beundertaken with the population of gang and non-gang members in Los Angelesto identify these variables. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 45: 469-474.Lab, S., & Whitehead, J. But, in the special case of gang delinquency, a collective beliefsystem is formed, and collective delinquent solutions or a delinquentsubculture are formed. (1977). Perhaps researchers need to be more inclusivewhen examining causes of delinquency. Glencoe, IL: The Free Press.Elliot, D., Ageton, S., & Cantor, R. Causes of Delinquency. Vigil(1983) describes Chicano gangs as a response to Mexican urban adaptation inthe L.A. Some have suggested that, since delinquency is a group phenomenon,change must affect the shared delinquent characteristics. Many subscribe to the belief that "nothing works" with juveniledelinquents (Lab & Whitehead, 1988). Strain theory thenassumes that the family, often thought of as the earliest and most powerfulsource of socialization (Klein, Alexander & Parsons, 1977), adequatelysocialized the child, so family is often ignored in strain theory (Hirschi,1969). The lack of descriptive and empirically-based writing on gangs isproblematic when one needs to examine intervention strategies. Cohen (1955) focuses on the goal of "middle classstatus." He contends that juvenile delinquents have the same desires thatmiddle-class juveniles do, but, because of a lack of resources oropportunities, real or perceived, they are unable to achieve them in theconventional manner and seek unconventional methods. (1977, January). Tolan et al. Gibbons (1986) summarized the current state of theory in the area ofjuvenile delinquency: . Because of juvenile delinquency,the lower SES youths appeared to be delinquent more often, but, when self-report studies emerged, this traditional view was challenged (Fagan, Piper,& Moore, 1986). An analysis of juvenile correctional treatment. (1977). The major theoretical models of juveniledelinquency were applied to gangs with a "group" or "subculture"perspective. Family theorists have sought toidentify family and parental variables that cause delinquency. (1985). But, if the predictive variables for gang membershipcould be identified and an "at-risk" population identified, thenintervention could occur before these strong ties to the gang subcultureformed. The link between learning disabilities and juveniledelinquency: Current theory and knowledge. OffendersRehabilitation, 1: 349-36 .Stuart, R.B. Social work practice with black urban youth gangs. Cloward & Ohlin(196 ) do not use the concept of "middle class status" but emphasize thejuveniles' goals of economic success and goal-blockage. (1983). Journal of Psychology, 81: 212-222.Atwood, R.O., & Osgood, D.W. Delinquency & opportunity:Theory ofdelinquent gangs. Itis important to note that street-work sought to work with gangs as theyexisted in the context of the group, not necessarily individual gangmembers. The "proposed integrated theoretical paradigmbegins with the assumption that different youths have different earlysocialization experiences, which result in variable degrees of commitmentto and integration into conventional social groups" (Elliot et al., 1979,p. Sociologists have focused on societal,structural causes of delinquent behavior. But Agnew doesnot clarify whether or not aspirations may have decreased afterconventional paths to success were blocked, thus fostering a feeling ofhopelessness and frustration, leading to deviant or criminal behavior."Strain, as measured by perceptions that occupational and other long-termopportunities are limited, does not appear to be an important [orexclusive] factor in producing delinquent conduct" (Gibbons, 1986, p. (1987). 22 ). Attempts have been made to update, revise, and integrate thesetheories of delinquency (Thornberry, 1987; Elliot et al., 1979; Agnew,1985). Intervention With Gang Delinquents As with the theoretical aspect of delinquency and gangs, there arevarying opinions on what constitutes positive intervention. (1983). The data also consistently suggest that family interaction is alsoassociated with the development of antisocial and delinquent behavior andis a direct indicator of the family's role in delinquency (Quay, 1987).Studies that focus directly on family interactions found that families ofdelinquents, as a group, had more difficulty resolving conflicts, had morefrequent parental disagreements, express more negative affect than positiveaffect, and generally have confusing and unclear communication patterns(Tolan et al., 1986). Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 13: 63-74.Cloward, R., & Ohlin, L. This way of thinking is particularly apt for gang delinquency sincestrong ties to the gang or the "homeboys" have been reported as one of theconsistently present aspects of gangs (Moore et al., 1983; Short andStrodtbeck, 1967; Vigil, 1983; Fox, 1985). According toJaneksela (1979), early familial experiences lay the framework for thechild's future behavior and the development of the child's attitudes,values, and lifestyle. Research needs to be done to evaluatethe extent of gang delinquency across social classes. A differential approach to juvenilediversion. Social skills defects have also been proposed as possible causes ofdelinquency (Long & Sherer, 1984; Hains & Hains, 1987). and Binder, Virginia L. British Journal of Criminology, 24: 185-94.Klein, M., Gordon, M., & Maxson, C. As will be seen, theories of juvenile delinquency causationand gang delinquency are closely related, yet juvenile delinquents and gangdelinquents are qualitatively different (Maxson, Gordon, & Klein, 1985). our knowledge is incomplete, conditional, and also many of the tentative conclusions reached by some investigators have been challenged by others. (1988). Quay (1987) also suggests that delinquent behavior is theproduct of inadequate socialization, whose roots can be observed in earlychildhood. 3). Journal of Applied SocialPsychology, 17: 969-89.Beal, D., & Duckro, P. The dominant strategy currently used to deal withgangs is law-enforcement and prosecution of youth who are suspected of gangcrimes (Spergel, 1986). Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 17(2): 2 9-229.Patterson, G.R., & Dishion, T.J. Handbook of juvenile delinquency. Piper, E., & Moore, M. Implications for Theory, Practice and Research Theorists from various disciplines have sought to construct theoriesthat would explain the causes of delinquency. The research and theoretical writing mentioned above also failed todescribe fully the differences between various ethnic-group gangs. The mechanism which intervenes to form a gang rather than individualdelinquents needs to be examined and articulated more clearly. Self-report data on juvenile delinquency found thatdelinquency is not exclusively, or even primarily, a lower-class phenomenon(Elliot et al, 1979). (198 ). "Findings provide modest support for the idea that the model isworth exploring further" (Patterson & Dishion, 1985, p. This is a view of how strain theory, as described earlier, can beapplied to gangs. Individuals exist in a world that includes intrapsychic processes and afamily background, and they exist in a social, cultural and societalmilieu. Strain theory appears to have particular difficulty withthe relationship between families and delinquency because it assumes anadequate socialization which is then attenuated. 76). the reason one child becomes delinquent may becompletely unrelated to the reason another child becomes delinquent. (1985). However, this assumption needs to be examinedclosely. "[Although many] studies have demonstrated a correlation betweendelinquent behavior and family variables and interaction, the findings havenot been consistent or unchallenged" (Blomberg & Caraballo, 1979, p. Thelatter comparison, comparing gang delinquents to non-gang delinquents,would further identify the unique characteristics of gangs. The effects of a cognitive strategyintervention on the problem-solving abilities of delinquent youths.Journal of Adolescence, 1 : 399-413.Hetherington, E.M., Stouwie, R.J., & Ridberg, E. (1976). This theory assertsthat human behavior occurs in social interaction and can therefore best beexplained by a model that focuses on interactive processes. Perlmutter (1987) postulated that delinquent behaviorwas a result of learning-disabled adolescents' attempts to compensate foracademic failure and frustration. 5 1). Interrelations of empathy, cognititionand moral reasoning with dimensions of juvenile delinquency. GGI is based on the assumption that, if peerassociations can foster delinquent behavior by providing examples,provocation, or encouragement, then such associations can restrain youthsfrom delinquent behavior by examples, approbation or reasoning;interventions should be designed to alter the nature of peer interaction inthis positive direction (Gottfredson, 1987). "Sociological studies have focused primarily onstructural variables such as size and composition of family, social class,and parents' employment" (Carill, Gusmar, & Wolff, 1983, p. An outgrowth of thetraditional street-work approach was also described by Spergel (1986). The whole concept of a gang deals more with peer involvement, yetthe variables that allow a juvenile to become involved in the gang need tobe identified. Multiple causal paths probably lead to ganginvolvement, including psychological, sociological and family variables.Path analyses need to be examined to delineate the various "ways" or"reasons" juveniles participate in gangs. A multitude ofindividual, family, and sociocultural variables need to be included. The model used mobile worker teams to provide crisisintervention, surveillance, and medication. Perhaps a more inclusive, integrated orsystemic approach needs to be examined, including variables from each area. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 2: 1-11.Thornberry, G. Since the qualitative differences between gang delinquentsand status offenders or other "soft" delinquents is unknown, theapplicability is limited. Short and Strodtbeck(1967) did examine the differences between these two groups in the mid-196 s, but they failed to document systemic differentiation between gangfrom non-gang family experiences. (1986). (1986), in reviewing the literature, also questions thestrength of this body of literature, because the research tended to bemethodologically unsound: lack of adequate sample sizes; inadequatedefinition of the interventions used; simplistic outcome measures; a lackof control or comparison groups; and lack of recognition that delinquentsare a highly heterogeneous population. These traditional street-corner programs haveconsistently failed to reduce delinquent behavior in gangs and have beenlargely abandoned (Wright & Dixon, 1977; Gibbons, 1986; Spergel, 1986). 183). Thornberry (1987)asserts that the previous theories are unidirectional and that reciprocalcausal structures need to be examined more closely. Juvenile delinquents are a heterogeneous group; therefore,establishing one causal path is problematic. Klein (1984) examined blackgangs and provided mostly descriptive information. The violent gang problems in Chicago: A localcommunity approach. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 78: 16 -173.Hirschi, T. Research needs to be done at each level of the problem. If the family does not help the child to adjust tothe social environment, the child does not receive the most important meansof psychological support, and the most effective agent for socialization isineffective. (1986), a survey of the literature reportingfamily therapy with delinquents indicates that a wide variety of techniqueshave been used: behavioral contracting; communication skills training;role playing; providing education and information about family processes,parenting, and adolescent development; reinforcement of clearcommunication; behavioral analysis and behavioral management training;family sculpting; symptom prescription; and paradoxical injunctions (p.626). juvenile delinquents behave maladaptively toattain their goals simply because they lack the requisite skills to actappropriately. (1984). Short-term behavioral intervention with delinquent families. Youth-serving agencies tend to focus treatmentinterventions on younger or peripheral gang youth (Spergel, 1986).Empirically-based research on the effectiveness of treatment interventionsfor gang members could not be found. Long and Sherer(1984) suggest that delinquent behavior may result from situation-specificsocial skills deficits; i.e. A child's delinquency is a result ofan incredibly complicated combination of causative factors, of which familyimpact is only one. (1979) attempted to formulate a mode that integratedjuvenile delinquency theories based on the premise that there are multiplecausal paths to delinquency. The project received modestlypositive results. Familytherapy with delinquents: A critical review of the literature. A revised strain theory of delinquency. According to Spergel (1986), the evidence suggests that, since themid- or late-197 's, gangs and gang activity have increased in bothseverity and scope. The major variables identified includeparental affection-acceptance, conflict, supervision-discipline, anddeviance (Carill et al., 1983). (1979). Behavioral contracting within the families of delinquents. Criminology, 23: 2 9-216.Moore, J., Vigil, J., & Garcia, B. "This theoryfocuses upon the group as the prime change agent and expresses the notionthat even though a bad home situation may have been the base of a boy'sdelinquency, it is now delinquent peers, not his parents, who are currentsources of status, recognition, friendship and acceptance" (Springfield,1977). Psychological and Sociological Theories of Juvenile Delinquency The study of crime and delinquency has generated a rich body oftheory, offering many competing, and at times conflicting, perspectives(Elliot, Ageton, & Carter, 1979). (1986). But Cloward and Ohlin (196 ) articulate a clearer modelusing strain theory and the formulation of a delinquent subculture. Washington, D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office.Palmer, J.B., & Lewis, R. Social skills training with juvenileoffenders. Many sociological theories have been developed to explain juveniledelinquency, theories based not on the individual per se, but on society orthe environment. Hedescribed project CRISP (Crisis Intervention Services Project), used in oneof the most gang-ridden areas of Chicago, with the goal of gang-violencereduction. Historically, youth gang activities have been observedpredominantly in metropolitan California. Social Forces, 64: 151-67.Alexander, J.F., Barton, C., Schiavo, R.S., & Parsons, B.V. Mission impossible? Therefore, as per this model, a youth can become delinquent ifinadequately socialized, or an adequately socialized youth can becomedelinquent if perceived opportunity was thwarted. Juvemile diversion. Another criticism of theories on gangs (and juvenile delinquency ingeneral) is that they have relied heavily on conceptions regarding lower-class status (Short & Strodtbeck, 1967). But studies have shown that juvenile delinquency is highestwhen aspirations and expectations are low (Agnew, 1985). Patterns of family interaction and child-rearing attitudes related to three dimensions of juvenile delinquency. Thornberry (1987) uses the previously-mentioned theories to developan "interactional theory" of juvenile delinquency. The theoretical models derived from the observation of gangdelinquency should lead to practice interventions. (1955). Contributions of families andpeers to delinquency. One would not argue that a 13-year-old male who breaks curfew, skips school and shoplifts occasionally isvery different from a 16 year old gang member who sells drugs andparticipates in drive-by shootings. 69). Delinquency Theories and Families For some time, researchers and practitioners have emphasized thecritical role of the family in the development of delinquency (Tolan,Cromwell, & Brasswell, 1986). Interactiontheory suggests that the fundamental cause of delinquency lies in theweakening of social restraints (strain theory and control theory), but thisattenuation of controls does not directly lead to delinquency, which mustbe learned, reinforced, and performed (learning theory). Unlike strain theory, which assumes thatindividuals are positively socialized and violate norms only when thisattachment and commitment are attenuated, "control theory treats the actualsocialization process and commitment to conventional norms and values asproblematic" (Elliot et al., 1979, p. Then, too, ours is a kind of "black box" situation in that although we have identified some of the important factors or influences that are implemented in juvenile lawbreaking, there clearly are a host of other causal variables that remain undiscovered and unidentified. 4). Because the difference between non-gang and gang delinquents has notbeen clearly articulated, the family contributions to gang delinquency havenot been differentiated from the family contributions to delinquency ingeneral. Recommendations forimproved methodologies for intervention research were mentioned earlier inthis paper. Delinquency boys: The culture of the gang. Straintheory, a major theory of delinquency, is based on the idea thatdelinquency results when individuals are unable to achieve their goalsthrough legitimate channels and therefore seek goal attainment throughillegitimate channels or act out of frustration and anger (Cohen, 1955;Cloward & Ohlin, 196 ). Poor and erratic disciplinary practicesare thought to contribute to delinquency through the failure of the parentsto "adequately and consistently label, track, and consequate" antisocialbehavior and to reinforce prosocial behavior (Quay, 1987, p. 64). (1988). Criminology, 24: 439-71.Fox, J. However, the survey found these techniques to have tenuousapplicability to gang delinquency. Multiple measureswere used, including self-report, scales, and official police and schoolrecords. Chicano gangs: One response to Mexican urbanadaptation in the Los Angeles area. Delinquentsare not a homogeneous population (Lee & Prentice, 1988), and it isgenerally believed that more than one single approach is necessary tocombat this problem, especially in the area of gangs (California Council onCriminal Justice, 1986). . The impact of policeinvestigations on police-reported rates of gang and nongang homicides.Criminology, 24: 489-512.Klein, N.C., Alexander, J.F., & Parsons, B.V. Sacramento, CA: Council.Carill, V.C., Gusmar, L.L., & Wolff, L. Recent research has been critical of strain theory (Agnew, 1985;Gibbons, 1986). Learning theory may also allow for the inclusion of family andparenting variables, in that families may act to teach, reinforce andmaintain delinquent behavior, directly or indirectly (Janksela, 1979)."The family may model and differentially reinforce patterns of antisocialbehavior. (1973). This paper will summarize the major theoretical concepts related tomale gang delinquency with an emphasis on analyzing how theory and researchon family treatment of delinquent youths can apply to the gang phenomenon.This is somewhat problematic since the research and theoretical writing ongangs is intertwined with the writing in the more general area of juveniledelinquency. Fox (1986) described anupdated street-work model that he used in an urban eastern city. Although self-reports of simple delinquency show a more equal distribution across socialclasses, some further information is needed if this assumption is to beapplied to gang delinquency as well. Mandatory parent involvement in the treatment ofdelinquent youth. A treatment model consistent with the above premise is Guided GroupInteraction (GGI). But, in terms of treatment and prevention, researchmust continue to identify those factors related to delinquency that can bemanipulated. Contingency contracting with families of delinquent adolescents. It isdifficult to derive adequate practice models for a problem that is notclearly understood. Assuming that gang delinquency and non-gang delinquency aresimilar in terms of the processes by which they occur, some of theempirical research done with interventions on juvenile delinquents ingeneral could be applied. Therehave been no recent studies to date that examined the family characteristicdifferences between gang and non-gang juveniles. Family counseling as an alternative to legal action for the juvenile status offender. First,static group comparisons need to be done to compare the characteristics ofgang and non-gang members and gang delinquents and non-gang delinquents.The former model will allow the researcher to compare gang delinquents to"normal" juveniles to differentiate these groups. The existing theories fail to explain whysome juvenile delinquents form a delinquent subculture but do not form agang. They differ fromone another and from "traditional" street gangs (described by earlierresearch) and need to be looked at differently (California Council onCriminal Justice, 1986). 22 ). If it could be determined that gang delinquentsfirst engage in "soft" delinquency before gang membership, thenintervention could be targeted at this early stage as a preventativetechnique. Crime and Delinquency, 32(2): 186-2 4.Gottfredson, G. (1986). (1986). Social control theory is more related to the possible familycontributions to delinquency because it postulates that the actualsocialization process is problematic, therefore linking family andparenting variables to the adequacy or inadequacy of socialization andinternationalization of normative controls (Hirschi, 1969). (1986). 9). Criminology, 23: 63-79.Perlmutter, B. Elliot et al. Group process and gang delinquency.Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Spergel, I. 5 ).Hirschi (1987) cautioned that, while it is easy to construct an apparentcausal interpretation of relationships between delinquency and specificfamily variables, it is very difficult to construct such an interpretationwith predictive capacity (p. ReferencesAgnew, R. An integrated theoreticalbehavior. One criticism described by Agnew (1985) is that, if straintheory did in fact explain juvenile delinquency, juvenile delinquents wouldhave high aspirations for success but perceive that they couldn't expect toattain it. Itclosely resembled the earlier street-work model. Differences between gang and nongang homicide. Toward an interactional theory of delinquency. Counseling Psychology, 11 (2): 69-77.Blomberg, J.G., & Caraballo, F.L. Learning theory, on the other hand, posits that there is no naturalimpulse toward delinquency and that delinquent behavior must be learned andreinforced through the same process as conforming behavior (Thornberry,1987). Academic theorists andresearchers expressed considerable concern about the problem in the 195 'sand 196 's but showed little interest in solving it in the followingdecades, so literature on gangs since the early 196 's is sparse (Spergel,1986; Fox, 1985). (1985). 635).According to Tolan et al. . Theybelieve that a democratic ideology espouses equality of opportunity andthat universally high aspirations for success exist, but when there is adiscrepancy between aspiration and opportunity, delinquent solutionsevolve. Urban Anthropology, 12: 45-75.Weathers, L., & Liberman, R.P. 8). Final report. A goodplace to start is to identify where or when one wishes to intervene.Established, or hard-core, gang members who are presumably alreadysocialized into the delinquent or gang subculture may require a peer groupor even a street-work model (an assumption because this has not beenempirically tested). Journal of Research in Crime andDelinquency, 14 (1): 35-67.----------------------- 6 Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 3 : 47-54.Klein, M.W. Delinquency and learning disabilities: Evidence for compensatory behaviors and adaptation. "Their analysis is based on social learningprinciples, with a strong emphasis upon the central role in thesocialization process played by parental reinforcement and punishment ofchild behavior" (p. According toBlomberg & Caraballo (1979), "collectively, the family variables explainvery little of the variance in delinquency. Child and Family Behavior Therapy, 6(4): 1-11.Maxson, C., Gordon, M., & Klein, M. Further, although studies haveshown relationships between delinquent behavior and family related factors,such statistical correlations should not be interpreted as causalrelationships" (p. The groups wouldthen be compared on rates of delinquency. (1967). The major theories will be presented briefly. However, many treatment strategies have been usedfor juvenile delinquency in general that have been looked at empirically.Yet, when looked at collectively, no single program or approach can beconsidered ideal for the full range of delinquent youths (Palmer & Lewis,198 ). Although there islimited applicability, this study was an attempt to develop a causal model. Family counseling and the status offender. Although the above-mentioned variables were found to be correlatedwith delinquency, the relationships were derived through the use of cross-sectional or longitudinal designs which cannot establish the causal natureof family and parenting variables (Quay, 1987). This is ideal, but the model isproblematic because it assumes that we can identify an "at-risk" group andthat we have developed interventions "powerful" enough to significantlyalter family interaction, and it assumes that the variables thought tocause delinquency can indeed be manipulated or allowed, ignoring the morestructural and environmental possible causes, such as poverty and socialclass. Patterson & Dishion (1985)attempted to construct a causal model of juvenile delinquency using thestructural modeling approach in the LISREL IV analysis program to identifythe major variables. In studies comparing juvenile offenders and non-offenders, othercharacteristics have been described, but the directional or causal linksare not clear. The weakness in design andmeasurement was superceded by the lack of applicability to the gangpopulation. But intervention research should be undertaken only after themajor variables have been identified as targets for those interventions.The problem of gang delinquency is a serious social problem and morescholarly work needs to be undertaken. Another premise based on individual characteristics is thatdelinquency can be attributed to learning disabilities (Murray, 1976;Perlmutter, 1987). There are various views aboutthe exact problematic nature of these conventional norms of conduct,including that delinquency is a consequence of a lack of internalizednormative controls or a breakdown in previously established controls orinconsistency in rules or social controls (Elliot et al., 1979). areas; he examined the ecological, economic, cultural, andpsychological aspects of that adaptation. Since gang delinquents are qualitatively different from non-gang delinquents (Maxson et al., 1985), a body of research in which sampleswere drawn from a qualitatively different population is not very useful.However, since the research has generally supported the efficacy of familytherapy in reducing delinquency in that population (Tolan, 1986), thestudies could be replicated using samples from the population of gangdelinquents. Criminology, 25: 863-91.Tolan, P.H., Cromwell, R. The role of the family in the resocialization of juvenile offenders. They emphasize the parents' failure to respondsupportively to prosocial behaviors and to effectively track and disciplineantisocial behavior and the association with delinquent peers. The intervention mentioned most often in the literature with regardto gangs is "street-work" or "street-corner work." This model involves a"detached-worker" who goes into the community to make contact with juvenilegangs, gains their confidence, and then directs their disruptive energiesinto positive channels (Wright & Dixon, 1977). Thesevariables are useful in terms of identifying "at-risk" groups but are notuseful for formulating intervention strategies because these structuralvariables are not easy to manipulate. "Since virtually all the traditional theoreticalperspectives on delinquency either assumed or postulated a relationshipbetween social class and delinquency, it appears necessary to reject [ormodify] traditional values" (Elliot et al., 1979, p. (1985). & Brasswell, M. (1987). These comparisonsneed to be made with sensitivity to age, area of residence, racial orethnic background, and level of gang involvement. Peer group intervention to reduce the risk ofdelinquent behavior. (1979). In fact, Goddard (1921), whointroduced the Binet scale to the United States, argued that mentaldeficiency was the major cause of delinquency" (p. No empirically-based research could be located regarding treatmentinterventions used with individuals or groups of gang members besides thestreet-work approach. The study wasdone on a group of white, lower-middle-class males. Systems-behavioral intervention with females of delinquents: Therapistcharacteristics, family behavior and outcomes. (1979). 192). (1971). (1983). (1977). FamilyProcess, 25 (4): 619-49.Vigil, J.D. New York: John Wileyand Sons.Short, J., & Strodtbeck, F. The street work approaches mentioned above are fairly recent butstreet-work outreach programs were more popular in the 195 's and 196 's(Spergel, 1986). Psychology, as a discipline, has beencontributing to the field of juvenile delinquency throughout much of thecentury, and the early period produced "individual" theories ofdelinquency. Social Service Review, 6 : 94-131.Springfield, N. To put the matter in the language of the statistically inclined, the etiological variables that we have uncovered to date separately and jointly explain only a modest proportion of the variance in delinquency/nondelinquency (p. Today, youth gang activities arespreading to smaller urban, suburban, and rural areas as well and reach allsocio-economic classes and ethnic groups (California Council on CriminalJustice, 1986). (August 1976). Because of the number of possible variables, multiple causal pathsprobably exist, i.e. The impact of family counseling in resocializingadolescent offenders with a positive peer treatment milieu. (1975). These practice models need to be based on theory.Therefore, descriptive and theoretical conceptualizations need to beundertaken before intervention strategies are derived. (1971). Theextent to which current gangs are territorial and how this affects theirdevelopment need to be explored theoretically. Offenders differ in self-esteem (lower than non-offenders),locus of control (more often external), levels of empathy (lower), andcognitive processes (more immature development), yet these variables arenot necessarily "causes" of delinquency (Long & Sherer, 1984; Lee &Prentice, 1988). Journal of Social Problems, 32(2): 1: 2-94.Murray, C. Also, the family may inadequately reinforce prosocial behaviorin comparison with the reinforcement of antisocial behavior available inthe community" (Stuart, 1971, p. Another confounding problem in defining family variables that causedelinquency is that the influences of the family variables have not yetbeen adequately separated from other possible intervening variables, suchas poverty, social class, lack of education and social skills, and peergroup pressure (Blomberg & Caraballo, 1979; Hirschi, 1987). However, according to Lab andWhitehead (1988), a meta-analysis concerning behavioral interventions founda high degree of effectiveness for behavioral interventions for recidivism,behavior, and attitudinal outcomes. Cooperation in grouptreatment programs for incarcerated adolescents. It is clear that the gang phenomenon in Los Angeles ismuch different than the gangs observed by early theorists (Cohen, 1955;Cloward and Ohlin, 196 ; Short and Strodtbeck, 1967), and new and revisedtheories need to be formulated. (1987 November). 189). New York: The Free Press.Cohen, A. In order to identify the family and parenting variables thatinfluence delinquency, a method frequently employed is comparing the familycharacteristics of delinquents and non-delinquents (Hetherington, Stouwie,& Ridberg, 1971). The research mentioned earlier that identified the major familyvariable was done by comparing delinquent and nondelinquent samples. Juvenile delinquency: Can social science find acure? Community prevention andtreatment of juvenile delinquency. Some of the theories of how families arerelated to delinquency are compatible with the sociological theoriesmentioned above. Although this author has observedviolent gang delinquency in middle-class areas, it still may be primarilyan urban, lower-class phenomenon. 5 1). 63). Therefore, juvenile delinquent behavior is learned and maintained,as is positive behavior, and learning usually requires a group, making thistheory particularly applicable to gang delinquency. Variables that are related to family functioning have also receivedemphasis in the literature. (1985 Spring). Crime and Delinquency, 34: 6 -83.Lee, M., & Prentice, N. (196 ). Gangs and Gang Delinquency Introduction Gangs and gang violence have been topics of documentaries, televisionshows, motion pictures, and magazine articles. Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 3 : 23-28.Hains, A.A., & Hains, A.H. (1986, December). None ofthese "arenas" have sufficiently identified all of the causal factors thatcontribute to delinquency. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.