CLINICAL SUPERVISION OF TEACHERS.   Term Paper ID:18826 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Evolution of this process, emphasizing ideas of Robert Goldhammer. Theory, the supervision sequence, qualification, training, purposes.... More...

12 Pages / 2700 Words 4 sources, 42 Citations, APA Format $48.00 Return to List of Papers

Paper Abstract: Evolution of this process, emphasizing ideas of Robert Goldhammer. Theory, the supervision sequence, qualification, training, purposes. Paper Introduction: Robert Goldhammer Robert Goldhammer was an educator who strongly believed that teachers should have ongoing supervision in order to continue their effectiveness and to maximize pupil learning. He was an early proponent of the process of "clinical supervision," a term coined by his mentor, Morris Cogan, during their mutual work at Harvard (Krajewski & Anderson, 1980, p. 421). He refined Professor Cogan's eight step process, called "the cycle of supervision," to a less complex method of five stages, which he called the "sequence of supervision" (Krajewski, 1982, p. 39). His landmark text, Clinical Supervision: Special Methods for the Supervision of Teachers (Goldhammer, 1969), was the first in this new field. The ideas for clinical supervision found their roots in the Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. Krajewski, R.J. Thesupervisor must sensitively know the frame of reference of the teacher,"his values, his ideals, his concepts, his feelings and his anxieties"(1969, p. The ideas for clinical supervision found their roots in the Harvard-Lexington and Harvard-Newton programs, which trained principals,supervisors, teachers and student teachers for their positions. 41-42), clinical supervisionentered the past decade as a warmly pursued topic. 368). Too often inthe past, supervision was about superficial aspects of teaching, such asthe bulletin board display or the teacher's physical posture. Goldhammerwas a faculty member in the Harvard-Lexington program, and for five yearshe served on the faculty of the University of Pittsburgh. The supervisorgives feedback to the teacher, a form of adult reward, which is very rarefor most teachers. 41). Although in actual practice there are obstacles--lack of time andmoney, few trained supervisors, no one to supervise the supervisors, lackof consensus about the purpose of supervision, the bargaining power ofteacher unions--the aim of clinical supervision will be realized when "byvirtue of its existence, everyone inside the school will know better why heis there, will want to be there, and, inside that place, will feel a strongand beautiful awareness of his own, individual identity and a community ofspirit and enterprise with those beside him. The Supervisors must be thedriving force behind the establishment of healthy, workable, productiverelationships with their teachers. This shift is not complete and there is stillmore talk about Procedures than the underlying rationale (198 , p. He wrote his book because of unhappiness with the schools and becauseof excitement about the possibilities of improvement (Goldhammer, 1969,Preface). To reduce that tensionrequires supervision knowledge and training, mainly in collecting data.Clinical supervision is a method for improving instruction, goal-oriented,systematic, yet flexible, requiring role delineation, mutual trust andrapport nurturance (1982, pp. He was an early proponent of the processof "clinical supervision," a term coined by his mentor, Morris Cogan,during their mutual work at Harvard (Krajewski & Anderson, 198 , p. Educational Leadership, 37, 42 -423.----------------------- 14 57-61). This visit is always by appointment, never a surprise. These are the values thatmotivate our work and give rise to our ambition" (Goldhammer, 1969, p. Robert Goldhammer Robert Goldhammer was an educator who strongly believed that teachersshould have ongoing supervision in order to continue their effectivenessand to maximize pupil learning. The mission of clinical supervision is one of educating the wholeperson, child, teacher and supervisor, not necessarily in that order but ina relationship among the three that works to a synergistic benefit of all.Neither supervisor nor teacher is demeaned to the role of a mechanisticproducer of education; both are encouraged to bring their whole selves tothe teaching-learning process, to be aware of the whys and integrate themwith the hows (Krajewski, 1982, p. . 423). 4 ), and it does students and teachers both a disservice to jumpto the application level without a solid theoretical base. It must produceobjective, measurable accomplishments. Goldhammermerely intended for this term to mean face-to-face. Both participants must know,understand and accept each other's role. Here the supervisor may self-question, "What kinds of rewards do I offer?" Are either of us behaving instereotyped aspects of our roles?" "Is there any semantic confusion?"(Goldhammer, 1969, p. Both its motivationand methods seemed to be random and archaic, with teachers expectingsupervisors to be punitive and supervisors not knowing what they were doingnor why. When Krajewski and Anderson revised the first text, there hadtranspired a slight shift from the methods of supervision to an emphasis onthe concept of supervision. 421). 5). These writers seem to concur that at present, clinical supervisionremains like music heard from a room far away (Goldhammer, Anderson &Krajewski, 198 , p. 3-4) he irreverentlycriticizes the relevance of current curriculum, stating that he has seen noteaching on the family that embodies "disaffection, divorce, cynicism,loneliness, neurosis, bastardy, atheism, tension, self-doubt, wrecked carsand cockroaches." The students quite early perceive that the washed-outversion of life put forth in the schools does not match their reality andthey come to distrust teachers and schools. 42). The twoparticipants revise the supervisory contract, and plans are made for thenext visit (1969, pp. 42). students of Goldhammer andCogan, tend to emphasize method, not theory (p. "Whilewe cannot, obviously, make promises that are as large as our dreams, we canproclaim those dreams and let ourselves be guided by them" (Krajewski &Anderson, 198 , p. It is instead an intimate, face-to-face, mutuallytrusting meeting in which personal things may be discussed to furtherenhance the teacher's capability to teach the students. These close relationships are for the purpose of examination ofteaching behaviors. As clinicalsupervision, both in the rationale and method aspects, becomes closer toeducators' mind-sets, it is better accepted as a valuable instructionalprocedure. . Supervisors don't necessarily need to be master teachers, but theymust be experienced, more experienced than those they observe, empatheticand people whom the teachers do not fear. 368). Literature was just beginningto take shape at the time of Goldhammer's death. This meeting signifies that the teacher isimportant to the supervisor, and it is almost never acceptable to conductan observation without a follow-up conference. Goldhammer believed the mission of clinical supervision was toprovide close, intimate relationships for the sake of the teachers'learning so that, in turn, the teachers could foster such personalrelationships with their students and enhance their learning. Goldhammer abhors the almostuniversal deficiency among supervisors in their inability to deal with theemotional ramifications of learning to teach, teaching, and being observedwhile teaching. The supervision must be mostly analytical, rational,unmysterious. Dissertation studies, mostly by. (198 ). Theory or Research Base of Clinical Supervision At the time of Goldhammer's writing, clinical supervision was not arecognized discipline within the field of education. Supervision is most likelyto succeed if the supervisor can accept the occurrence of problems in theclassroom without attaching any stigma to the teacher. In the opening chapter of his book (pp. Krajewski summarizes the theory of clinical supervision as follows:Deliberate intervention into the instructional process creates productivetension for both the teacher and supervisor. It has been found that when teachers pay attention to specificlearning styles of students and match their teaching to those particularmodes, greater learning will happen. What are the skills needed for supervisors?Why should there be supervisors? Any evaluation of the students or teachersneeds to be in the context of intimacy. "Our Friends in Ecuador" areat a severe disadvantage for the students, attention compared to theirfriends and enemies in their own block and neighborhood (p. In a more positive vein, Goldhammer encourages "constructiveintimacy" between teacher and supervisor, shown by affection for eachother, compatible intensity and rate of growth, and focus on the teacher'sissues, not the supervisors, although there must be some sense in therelationship of how the teacher contributes to the supervisors development. It's what the teacherdoes. At the time of the first text there were still few universitiesoffering degree programs in clinically oriented educational supervision. His colleagues,Anderson and Krajewski, finalized the book for printing and also revised asecond edition, which was published in 198 . 11). It must be open, not closed, humaneand creative (Goldhammer, 1969, p. New York: Holt, Rinehart. It means that there is a real personal relationship betweenthe supervisor and teacher built upon mutual purpose. J. Goldhammer's ideas, as well as constructing a practical method forsupervisors and teachers working together, strongly favored humanerelationships between these professionals. They must have expertise in theanalysis of teaching and in applying the principles of learning in apractical way. Underthese constantly shifting conditions, the mission of clinical supervisionis that both teacher and supervisor master important underlying concepts inorder to make the methods work in the school system today (p. They must be sensitive to the new teacher whowants to succeed and the experienced teacher who wishes not to fail andlose status. Supervisors need skills in adult psychology, time management andobservation instrumentation. These determinations arejointly derived, always with sensitivity to the particular concerns of theteacher. Supervisors need adequate training in all of these areas, plusmastery of technology (video and audio tape), capabilities of objectivityand flexibility (Krajewski, 1982, p. Although this is a counseling-guidancesetting, at no time does the conference veer into what Goldhammer calls thebig T, (Therapy). Another pair of eyes ispresent. 421).He refined Professor Cogan's eight step process, called "the cycle ofsupervision," to a less complex method of five stages, which he called the"sequence of supervision" (Krajewski, 1982, p. 198), but the goals are certainly worthwhile. It suggests cold, rigid, inhuman procedures which leave out thepersonal element that was actually eagerly advocated by Goldhammer's methodof clinical supervision (Krajewski & Anderson, 198 , p. 361). They together review the competencies that the teacher is working on,and the supervisor gives informational assistance or referral to othersources of help. And how can they persuadethe teachers to be receptive? Inthe ideal relationship between supervisor and teacher, the skilled teacherof teachers works with his student with the supervision concepts so thatthey may together productively formulate their own processes and changethem to fit their particular needs and classroom. What are the risks to the teachers? Two other major texts grew out of the Harvard-Newton programs. Shane and Weaver calledclinical supervision a form of professional support system for educatorsthat enhances emotional, social, scholarly and general mental developmentas important and related parts of their progress toward better teaching andguidance of pupils in the classroom (Krajewski, 1982, p. The supervisor and teacher renewtheir familiarity with each other's intellectual style and expressiverhythms. "Good teaching requires intimacy, empathy, sensitivity, andpsychological investment . Clinical supervision: Special methods forthe supervision of teachers. It should enhance, actualize and fulfill. From time to time Goldhammer (1969) mentions the philosophy of Rogersin his text. Krajewski, R.J., & Anderson, R.H. Instead, thesupervisor gleans information about teacher and student behaviors andprepares to communicate it sensibly to the teacher (Goldhammer, 1969, p.63). They establish mutual understanding of the teacher's plans,rehearse them, if necessary, and revise them. Goldhammer'sclinical supervision a decade later. 423). The supervisormust be a sort of bridge who helps the teacher move from the concept to themethod. Stage 5--The post-conference analysis, is for the supervisor to lookinward, to be aware of episodes during the observation or conference whicharoused strongly positive or negative feelings in order to evaluate thesupervisory performance. Professionals in this field concern themselves with the necessaryqualifications of a supervisor. These are conscious, deliberatetasks undertaken with great thought and responsibility, and it is thesupervisor's place to insure that these wholesome conditions exist--equallyfor new and seasoned instructors (p. Thus, according to Krajewski (1982, pp. As the public calledfor more accountability, the school systems attempted to meet their demandwith consultant services for in-service training and supervision courses.Still, understanding clinical supervision is not easy. This viewpoint definitelysees the participants as real people, distinct individuals with strengthsand weaknesses which will be humanistically addressed (Krajewski, 1982, p.4 ). (1969). Although he does not elaborate on humanistic psychology inconnection with his own philosophy, it seems there might be a relationship. 42). There is talk about issues that either have sensedintuitively and discussion of situational variables that may be affectingthe teacher's capabilities. His orientation comesfrom a framework of counseling psychology, always stressing the necessityfor humane relationships in the schools and an intimate, mutuallysupportive relationship between the supervisor and teacher. This person should be highly skilled inthe understanding of the school's mission and needs, be able to create andmaintain an atmosphere that is mutually supportive and conducive topositive change. Stage 4--The conference, is when both the teacher and the supervisorspeak about what happened. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 15(2), 38-43. 198). Teachers had been regarded as teaching machines and supervision asjust plain trouble-making (Goldhammer, 1969, p. Thefall issue of Contemporary Education also featured clinical supervision asa theme. (1982). 53-54). This requires a teacher whois committed to learning and teaching and a supervisor who is willing to beas vulnerable as the teacher. 423). 421). 422). (198 , February). Teamteaching had opened new vistas for supervisors and teachers, like a breathof fresh air, bringing a positive viewpoint, and teachers could at last seeeach other's work. Overall Mission of Clinical Supervision There has been over the years a resistance to the term "clinicalsupervision" because of negative connotations attached to the word"clinical." These could include anything having to do with medicine,disease, pathology, psychiatry, or manipulation (Goldhammer, 1969, pp. His text is a free-wheeling, yet deep-thinking, personalanalysis with an impassioned plea for the use of systematic supervision inthe schools. He deplored the fact thatsupervision was seen in "watchdog" terms, something to be avoided at allcosts, generally relating to disciplinary sanctions, tenure, salaryincreases, promotion, or for student teachers, grades (1969, vii). 69-7 ). If the relationship is too one-sided, the teacher becomes too vulnerableand cannot function (1969, p. Supervisors themselves often cannot exemplify goodteaching, and this obvious double standard demoralizes sensitive teachers(Goldhammer, 1969, viii). There are times when flexibility is necessary and the teacher andsupervisor need not feel bound to stick to a patterned routine day in andday out. Clinical supervision: A conceptualframework. Ed.).New York: Holt, Rinehart. Stage 1--The preobservation conference, provides a mental framework,establishes communication and relaxation. 71). Clinical supervision, ideally, is aconcept and a process that can aid in this goal by providing the same forthe teachers, and improved classroom instruction can be a reality(Krajewski, 1982, p. 41-42). 364). There must be the delicate capability of winning thetrust of teachers who simply don't like to have their work viewed by otherprofessionals (Krajewski & Anderson, 198 , p. Goldhammer's viewpoint was strongly that of an educator, having spent2 years as a student and 12 years as an educator. These trainingprograms in the early 196 s were an introduction to planned supervision forteachers and administrators who were excited about the new concepts ofcooperative teaching and team teaching (Goldhammer, 1969, Foreward). This increased information creates an Opportunity to help theteachers test reality and should result in heightened autonomy of theteacher. They share goals and groundrules and set a contract, an explicit agreement about why the supervisionshould take place and how it should proceed (Goldhammer, 1969, pp. (teachers') emotional capacities, theircognitive views, their views of life and of the world, their values, theterms in which they have learned to meet anxiety, and, altogether, theirrelationships to themselves represent their teaching essence" (Goldhammer,1969, p. The amount of data gathered is increased becausethe supervisor can see things the teacher cannot. There are stillmore questions than answers. (Krajewski & Anderson, 198 , p. In that year the winter issue of Journal of Research andDevelopment in Education featured the theme of clinical supervision. A good match in these areas of emotionand personality Is necessary to cultivate effective supervision. He felt itimportant to identify the needs, aspirations, talents and goals of bothpersons in which a trusteeship is to take place. This portion of the process may be done with taperecorder and playback of the conference. Halverson notes thatpractical application is the most difficult level of thinking (Krajewski,1982, p. Goldhammer wrote much of interpersonal closeness being the aim. Goldhammer wanted his book to culminate in questions and to providean immediately useful method for administrators who wished improvedsupervision for their teachers., He was praised by his colleague, RobertAnderson (Goldhammer, 1969, Foreward), as a "professionals professional, anauthor who really cares about things that matter." Goldhammer died in1968, just as his book was nearly ready for publication. Goldhammer, R., Anderson, R.H., & Krajewski, R. Howcan supervisors find the time to do the work? Clinicalsupervision: Special methods for the supervision of teachers (Rev. 421-422). No other works appeared as texts or issue themes of journalsuntil 1976. The data gathered must be true, verbatim questionsand answers, not general. 39). References Goldhammer, R. The best use of clinical supervision allows for the change thatconstantly occurs, inside factors and outside conditions, social andtechnological, which bear upon both teachers and students, affectinginterests and learning (Krajewski & Anderson, 198 , pp. Abrell in 1974 wrote of a five-step process similar to Goldhammer's,with a similar mission, but a variation in the second step. His landmark text,Clinical Supervision: Special Methods for the Supervision of Teachers(Goldhammer, 1969), was the first in this new field. Goldhammer essentially saw clinical supervision as something to becarried out always in a humanistic process. Stage 3--The analysis and strategy, is to make sense out of the dataand to decide what the goals should be for the conference. Goldhammer's Version of Clinical Supervision Goldhammer developed a Five-Stage sequence: 1) Preobservation; 2)Observation; 3) Analysis and Strategy; 4) Conference; and 5) Post-conference Analysis (Post-mortem). And eye-to-eye, it is shared with another human adult, thesupervisor. 19 ). 362) so that the teacher may find his way into the labyrinth ofJohnny's experience to know what goes on there and affect what happensthere intelligently and effectively (p. Stage 2--The observation is for the purpose of seeing what happensduring the teaching in order to be able to discuss it intelligently laterduring the conference. 39). Thisdiscrepancy between life according to school and real life can also causethe students to doubt their own minds. There was not yet asolid curriculum in supervisor education, and notions about how to trainand administer in the field were undecided. In1971, Richard Weller wrote Verbal Communication in InstructionalSupervision and in 1973 Cogan's Clinical Supervision provided rationale anda full description of the process (Goldhammer, Anderson & Krajewski, 198 ,p. 365). If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.