POLK, JAMES K.   Term Paper ID:18529 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Career of President (1845-49). Land acquisitions, war against Mexico, leadership style, party patronage, dealings with Congress, foreign policy, judicial issues, public opinion.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Career of President (1845-49). Land acquisitions, war against Mexico, leadership style, party patronage, dealings with Congress, foreign policy, judicial issues, public opinion. Paper Introduction: This paper will be concerned with the presidential career of James K. Polk. It will evaluate various aspects of Polk's presidency in order to arrive at an overall assessment of his effectiveness. James Knox Polk was born in North Carolina in 1795. After graduating from the University of North Carolina, Polk became a respected lawyer in the state of Tennessee. By age thirty, Polk had become a member of the House of Representatives, and ten years later he was elected Speaker of the House. In 1839, Polk was elected to the governorship of Tennessee. In 1841 and 1843, he tried unsuccessfully to be re-elected as governor. In 1844, Polk gave up on the governorship and entered the Democratic national elections as running mate under presidentialhopeful Martin Van Buren. Van Buren had already served as president from 1837 to 1841. In 1844, the former president Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. Bergeron, when it was all over, Polk had gotten theSupreme Court appointments he had desired; however, "harsh feelings towardshim on the part of some political leaders were among the fruits of theconflict" (166). In addition, Polk entered into a bloody war on Mexicansoil, an act which many historians have denounced since that time. Dallas as his running mate. Polk. The war with Mexico has also given historians an opportunity toevaluate Polk's performance as commander-in-chief. Asnoted by Paul H. However, it is in his position as a foreignpolicy leader that historians begin to uncover some of the controversieswhich were associated with Polk's presidential career. Nevertheless, Polk's decision todirectly attack Mexican cities has also raised serious doubts concerninghis military judgment. He has been particularly criticized for his role in spoiling" Mexicosimply for the acquisition of new U.S. Polk, Continentalist: 1843-1846. As president, Polk also became involved incontroversy over his appointment of nominees for the Supreme Court. James Knox Polk wasborn in North Carolina in 1795. When the elections were held, Polk won in astrong victory over the Whig candidate Henry Clay. Polk: A Study in Federal Patronage." Mississippi Valley Historical Review 38 (Mar. territories since the Louisiana Purchase was conducted underJefferson. As a political party leader, there is generalagreement that Polk did not succeed in holding the Democrats togetherduring his presidency. In 1844, Polk gave up on thegovernorship and entered the Democratic national elections as running mateunder presidentialhopeful Martin Van Buren. In Schouler's view, Polk's involvement in theMexican War is nothing more than "the crime he perpetuated against libertyand the sacred rights of property" (373). Forexample, as noted, many of Polk's Democratic constituents fell away as aresult of his approach to patronage. The public seemedto reject Polk on the basis of his personality as much as his politicalpolicies. All of these factors hurt theunity of the Democratic Party during Polk's term of office. Despite Polk's apparent change of policy on the Oregon issue, itcan be seen that the president was merely reflecting the changing attitudeof the American people at the time. Although his ambitions were oftenhigh, he generally attained whatever he set out to do. Polk was influential instrengthening the style of democracy which had first been advocated byAndrew Jackson. Specifically,Bergeron characterizes Polk as a man who was driven to accomplish greatpolitical goals in his public life but who was also troubled in hispersonal life (246). Several years after his death, historians began to gain new insights intothe Polk presidency by studying the personal diaries which he had kept fromAugust 1845 until two months before his death in June of 1849 (Schouler"President Polk's Diary" 236). The Presidency of James K. His most important political accomplishments included theacquisition of new territories in the southwest and the establishment ofthe Oregon border. 1911): 443-461.Sellers, Charles. Inthis system the president appointed his friends and associates to keycabinet positions, with the view that such patronage would help buildloyalty and thereby strengthen the party in power (Graebner 632). The Democrats generally opposed annexation because ofthe threat of war with Mexico as well as the concern that slavery wouldthus be spread to a new southern state (Graebner 626). At the sametime, however, many historians have commented that Polk could have acted ina more timely manner in settling the negotiations rather than allowing themto stretch out under threat of war for as long as they did. Establishing an independent treasury was notreally a milestone in Polk's career, because all he did was restore theprecedent which had originally been set by the Democratic President VanBuren (Schouler "President Polk's Administration" 371). In the view ofR. As noted by Norman A. Even though Trist eventually attained a good settlement with the Mexicangovernment, at the same time he was guilty of disobeying orders during timeof war. Because of the way he handled the Supreme Court nominations,Polk was responsible for the further decay of his own political party. Polk, Continentalist 31 ). Polk's major contribution to the foreign policy of his time can beseen in the way he handled the United States' war with Mexico. "President Polk's Administration." The Atlantic Monthly 76 (1895): 371-38 .Schouler, James. In particular,his hasty entry into the war hurt his political position within the party(Schouler "Diary" 241). Infact, Polk's personal diaries reveal that he considered both office-seekingand patronage to be a "source of annoyance" at best (Schouler "Diary" 238). Even though Polk's goal offairness in such appointments was commendable, at the same time, it isapparent that such efforts eventually weakened the Democratic Party as awhole. In handling GreatBritain and Mexico, Polk was guilty of a variety of questionable practices. It wasunderstood at the time that party patronage could be attained not onlythrough appointments to the president's cabinet but also to the Congressand the judiciary as well. In addition to the fact that thewar involved a greedy acquisition for land and a hostile attack against aweaker neighbor, the Mexican War was a travesty against human rightsbecause the American troops bombed a number of Mexican cities, therebygetting innocent men, women, and children involved in the conflict. Nevertheless, President Polk was not able tohold the Democratic Party together during his term in office, as evidencedby the fact that the Whig Party took over again in 1848. In 1841 and 1843, he triedunsuccessfully to be re-elected as governor. It is generally agreedthat Polk's success in winning the war shows his capability as a militaryleader. In addition, the material contained in those writingsconfirm both the positive and negative sides of Polk. Nevertheless, his effortsat fairness cost him a great deal of his own party's support. As in thecase of the Oregon border dispute, Polk's chief interest in dealing withMexico was his desire to increase the territorial size of the UnitedStates. Polk is remembered favorablyfor being a hard-working individual. Polk and Buchanan already had a strained relationship atthe time, and the difficulties encountered in making the Supreme Courtappointments did little more than increase the rift between the two men.This issue was soon part of Polk's general controversy in terms ofpatronage. An example of this controversy can be seen in Polk'streatment of Nicholas Philip Trist, a chief clerk in the State Departmentunder Secretary of State James Buchanan. In addition, Polk accomplished the greatest expansion ofU.S. Because of the Texas issue, the Democratic Partdropped Van Buren and nominated Polk to run for the presidency with GeorgeM. As noted by Paul H. In the words of thehistorian Paul H. Furthermore, Polk hesitated in ordering his troops to attack inTexas until the Mexican Army made its first move. At that time, the American people as a whole were committed to theidea of "manifest destiny," in which it was understood that the UnitedStates was eventually destined to acquire all of the lands from theAtlantic to the Pacific Oceans. Therefore, as commander-in-chief during the war, Polk's laterrejection of Trist was not only justified but necessary. In Schouler's view, however, this was simply a cleverruse on Polk's part to switch the blame--which was rightfully his --awayfrom himself (375). In this regard, it has been noted that Polk"betrayed a certain political ineptness and surprisingly little knowledgeof party structure" in the way he neglected Democratic appointees to officeunder his administration (Graebner 623). In fact, the president was even accused of "buying offpolitical enemies with public office" (626). 1952): 613-632.Ketchum, Richard M. Thetwo most important elements of legislation, the treasury and tariff bills,both originated from within Polk's office as opposed to being introduced inCongress (Bergeron 193). Princeton: Princeton UP, 1957.----------------------- 18 Despite the eventually positive outcome of American expansionism,many historians have criticized Polk for his territorial ambitions whichled to the War with Mexico. Others resentedPolk's appointments to the executive branch because they themselves werenot appointed. This act gave powerto the Supreme Court to either uphold or reject the decisions which hadbeen made in the state courts. This paper will be concerned with the presidential career of James K.Polk. In 1844, the former president looked likea strong candidate for the Democratic ticket. However, despite his backgroundin law, it can be seen that Polk was not always a strong leader of thenational judiciary. As a legislative leader, Polk was usually successful in his dealingswith Congress. On the domestic front, Polk also made importantcontributions with his low tariff bill and the establishment of anindependent treasury. The Democratic Party was also split over the patronage issuebecause there was a great deal of resentment over Polk taking full controlof selecting his administrative staff. In 1847, Trist was appointed byPolk to conduct peace negotiations with the Mexican government. These twomen were unpopular among the Democrats because of their support for theannexation of Texas. From this, it can be surmised that Polk's politicaldrive and ambition were probably fueled in part by the difficulties that heexperienced in private. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1966.Sellers, Charles Grier. Thus began a long series of negotiations between representatives onthe American and British sides. By lowering the tariff, Polk encouragedforeign trade and thereby helped to improve the economic condition of thecountry at the time. Sellers: "Loveable, or perhaps even likeable, he wasnot; but his incredible self-sufficiency and drive toward goals bothpersonal and disinterested constitutean impressive monument to the possibilities of the Calvinist,frontier personality" (Continentalist v). Bergeron has counteredthis view by pointing out that Polk's unpopularity was largely due to thefact that he was misunderstood. These diaries contain a great deal ofvaluable information regarding Polk's personal ideas and opinions duringhis term in office. Even the way in which Polk handled his emissary toMexico, Nicholas Trist, can be seen as a sign of great military leadership. Upon entering office in 1845,Polk established a domestic legislative program which led to the passage ofan important tariff bill, the establishment of an independent treasury, andthe establishment of a number of other important domestic programs. Polk's appointments to the Supreme Court furtherseparated him from his own party. In 1839, Polk waselected to the governorship of Tennessee. In addition to the disappointments experienced inhis party over his patronage policies, many Democrats split from Polk overthe Mexican War issue and the threat of slavery which the annexation ofTexas seemed to pose. As a domestic leader, it isgenerally agreed that Polk helped to strengthen the overall economicstability of the nation. Alarge number of the voters, particularly in the south, were eager to addTexas to the union. Regarding Polk's performance as a foreign policy leader, the keyissues of his administration were clearly the War with Mexico and thedispute with Great Britain over the border lines of the Oregon Territory.In these matters of foreign policy, Polk was at his most controversial.For example, the Oregon issue arose because many Americans becamedissatisfied with the border at the time which existed at the 49thparallel. When Polk began running for presidential office,he promised the people that he would strive for "Fifty-four forty orfight." This meant that he was willing to go to war with Great Britain ifthat nation did not turn the entire territory of Oregon over to the UnitedStates. Inthis way, Polk was able to make it seem as if the nation of Mexico wasitself responsible for starting the war which led to so much destructionwithin its borders. In evaluating his performance as chief executive, it may be notedthat James Schouler, writing in The Atlantic Monthly in 1895, felt thatPolk should be praised for his accomplishments as an administrator andunifier of executive action ("Diary" 236). Polk may be regarded as a controversy with hisaccomplishments being weighed against his questionable style of leadership. Many commentators have also considered Polk to be a failure in termsof political party leadership. Van Buren had already servedas president from 1837 to 1841. In fact, at times his decisions in this area turnedinto political blunders which ended up weakening his overall position ofleadership. Graebner,"had he been willing to decentralize and distribute the power of selectingfederal appointees, he might have protected himself from office seekers andprevented much of the bitterness displayed toward him by Democraticpoliticians" (632). Thus, thepresidency of James K. Polk's leadership as chief executive is also called into questionbecause of his position on the issue of party patronage.As an early Democrat, Polk had a vested interest in the patronage or"spoils system" which had originally been developed by Andrew Jackson. Many historianssince Polk's time have referred to the War with Mexico as the spoiling ofMexico for America's sake. This endedup being a long, hard effort on Trist's part, and at one point he wasrecalled by the president because it looked like the negotiations were notgetting anywhere. In general, he did not gain strong support fromthe American people in the course of his administration. However, in making an overallassessment of the president's popularity during office, it can be seen thatthe issues which made Polk unpopular heavily outweighed those which wouldhave helped to increase his popularity among the American people. Walker to the Treasury. In addition to his failure atmaintaining party unity during his term, it has been noted that publicopinion of Polk's overall administration was never very positive. Thiscontroversy was sparked in part by conflict with Secretary of State JamesBuchanan, who kept changing his mind over whether he wanted a position onthe bench or not. According to James Schouler, for example,because Polk was unable to obtain the lands he desired by fair means, he"set himself to acquiring by foul" ("Administration" 373). Thus, it is evident that Polk's personal likes and dislikes tendedto color his perception in his role as president. Polk can be credited with trying to be fair inbestowing political offices to office-seekers. The expansion ofthe United States was a vitally important issue during his administration.As such, Polk's expansionist policies fit in nicely with the generaldevelopment of America at the time. At the same time, although Schouler describes Polk as beingusually "sensible and clear-sighted," he was also "hemmed in by partisanand religious prejudices which limited the range of his comprehension"(24 ). L. "James K. At that time in American history,patronage between a president and his constituents had become a vitalelement in party politics. Many politicians felt that annexing Texas would be a bad ideabecause it would simply allow the problem of slavery to spread to anothernew southern state. As a man who was eventually destined to lead the federalexecutive branch, it is also interesting that Polk was involved in effortsduring the 183 s to repeal the Judiciary Act of 1789. Bergeron, Polk was a complicated personalitywho was divided between his public and private lives. Furthermore, Polk's leadership of the Democratic Party washurt by the fact that his ambitions to acquire territories in the southwestmade it seem as if he also supported the spread of slavery to those newareas. He seemed particularly inconsistent in view of the factthat he also began to show a willingness to compromise with the British byaccepting the 49th parallel as the boundary of Oregon's northernmostborder. Polk also lost the support of many of his fellowDemocrats as a result of his position on the Mexican War. Two key areas offoreign policy in which Polk and Congress collaborated well were thewinning of the Mexican War and the settlement of the Oregon borderquestion. At the same time, however, manyhistorians have claimed that Polk was simply carrying out the "manifestdestiny" of the nation as a whole in his desire to expand its size throughwar with Mexico. James K. Aspart of his foreign policy, Polk was prepared to pay as much as $4 millionfor the territories that he intended to take from the Mexican government.At the same time, Polk hoped to pay a lot less for his acquisition, andfurthermore he realized that he would never attain what he desired withoutentering into a bloody war with Mexico (376). Lawrence: UP of Kansas, 1987.Graebner, Norman A. onthe other hand, Polk became extremely unpopular in the public eye becauseof his questionable tactics in handling the War with Mexico. As chief executive, Polk was a good leader becauseof his keen administrative abilities. Despite Polk's faults, however, there has also been a great deal ofpraise given to both the man and president. Therefore, the overall assessment of Polk in terms ofjudicial leadership is not favorable. These included the establishment of a new treasurydepartment which was separate from the government as well as the reductionof tariffs on imports. Therefore,Polk's failure in dealing with the patronage system represents a failingnot only as chief executive over his administration but also as leader ofthe party as a whole. "Polk and the Oregon Compromise of 1846." Political Science Quarterly 26 (Sep. In the end, a settlement was reached whichaccepted the compromise at the 49th parallel. On amore positive note, however, Polk has been praised for his accomplishmentsin domestic affairs. "President Polk's Diary." The Atlantic Monthly 76 (1895): 235-243.Schuyler, R.L. Even JamesSchouler, who severely denounced Polk for his role in the War on Mexico,had to admit that Polk was a simple, sturdy, energetic, and honest man("Diary" 236). Polk was always a strong supporter of theDemocratic Party, as seen in his early support of Andrew Jackson and in theinfluence that Jackson would have on Polk's subsequent political career(Sellers Jacksonian 13 ). 197 ): 13-15+.Schouler, James. Nevertheless,Polk's military leadership can be questioned in terms of his decision todirectly attack Mexico's populated cities. As a judicial leader, it is interesting to note that Polk originallybegan his career as a lawyer in Tennessee. Soon after being elected, however, Polk showed himself to beinconsistent in this matter by suddenly seeking a peaceful settlement withGreat Britain. However, thereduction of the national tariff was a vital element for Polk in winningboth political and public support. As summarized in the words of Polk'sbiographer Charles G. However, Polk's success as a legislative leader was particularlynoticeable in terms of his domestic policy. Polk has also beencharacterized as being unscrupulous in the war with Mexico by virtue of thefact that he was largely responsible for the war, yet he led the Americanpeople to believe that the Mexican government had started the whole thing.The president first confused the issue by describing the takeover ofMexican land as the "reannexation of Texas," implying that Texas hadoriginally been part of the union and it was now America's job to win itback. Schuyler, the successful settlement of the Oregon issue was not dueto the leadership of Polk as much as it was to Britain simply acceptingAmerica's best offer and taking "the best terms it could without risking awar to increase British possessions on the Pacific" (461). Somehistorians have gone so far as to suggest that Polk's failure in providingadequate patronage to his own party cost the Democrats the 1848 electionwhich the Whig Zachary Taylor easily won (613). However, Polk did not approach the issue ofpatronage in the way that his Democratic constituents expected him to. In addition, valid criticismscan be mad e regarding Polk's actions in trying to make it seem as ifMexico was responsible for the war when it actually was not. Although the addition of a new state to theunion would provide economic gains for the nation as a whole, it is stillevident that Polk's main ambition in supporting annexation was his beliefthat it would lead to the acquisition of other territories in the southwestas well. Polk, Jacksonian: 1795-1843. Polk, Jacksonian 161). Therefore, the movement to repeal this actrepresented a "radical attack on the supremacy of federal law" (SellersJames K. The tariff bill which Polk was responsible forintroducing "gave to this country great mercantile prosperity andcommercial expansion down to the civil war, and won the approval of allpolitical parties" (371). Nevertheless, Polk and the Democratic Party wereelected in 1844 largely as a result of their platform that Texas should beadmitted as soon as possible. Polk was alsounpopular because his aims at territorial expansion in the south put him atodds with slavery abolitionists throughout the country. These were all popular elements because they helped expand the size of thenation while at the same time improving its general economic condition. It will evaluate various aspects of Polk's presidency in order toarrive at an overall assessment of his effectiveness. lands.James Schouler, writing in 1895, noted that Polk's questionable Mexicanpolicy "was to adopt the pretentious claim set up lately by the Texasrevolutionists, that the boundaries of that republic extended to the RioGrande, and over unsettled soil which the Mexican state of Texas had neverincluded; and then to manipulate a treaty settlement with Mexico whichshould give to our Union another immense fraction of that unhappy nation'sdomains" (Schouler "Administration" 374). In terms of the war, many historians have praised Polk for hisleadership as commander-in-chief. In the words ofPaul H. However, Trist disobeyed the president's recall orderand remained in Mexico long enough to acquire the vast territorialsettlement which became Polk's presidential claim to fame (Ketchum 15).Under Polk's guidance, the federal administrative board of the ForeignRelations Committee decided to remove Trist from office, not because of histreaty with the Mexican government, but because he "had written it afterhis recall" (88). In discussing Polk's relationship with the 29th Congress,historian Charles Sellers has noted: "In the course of it Polk was todisplay a brand of presidential legislative leadership that the countrywould not see again until the time of Theodore Roosevelt and WoodrowWilson" (Sellers James K. Those Americans wanted to take control of the entire territory,up to the 54th parallel. Some accused Polk of hiring people who did not deservegovernment jobs. Bergeron, Polk "served impressively as the nation's chiefcommander" (xii). James K. In accomplishing thesegoals, Polk established policies which enforced the Monroe Doctrine againstGreat Britain. As a result of this quest for expansion,President Polk became interested in the annexation of Texas to the union.The Americans living in Texas had already applied for admission to theunion, and there was mixed support for the idea at the time of Polk'selection. Bergeron, evaluation of Polk's treatment of the patronagesystem shows that it was clearly a "mixed success" (Bergeron 169). As a public opinion leader, Polk showed mixed performance during thetime of his presidency. Polk remained presidentfor a single term, retiring in 1849 following the inauguration of the WhigParty's Zachary Taylor. In this regard, it has been claimed that "Polk's reserve andartificiality, his disingenuousness and preference for deviousmanipulation, kept him from being greatly liked as a person by most of hiscontemporaries" (Sellers Continentalist v). It cannot be denied thatPolk played an important role in attaining this settlement. However, Van Buren soon lostpopular support because of his opposition to the annexation of Texas. Thus, Polk's tariff bill stands today as atestimony to his ability both as a legislative leader and a domesticleader. Bergeron stressesthat Polk was a capable presidential leader despite the fact that publicopinion was often against him. Paul H. Polk's acquisitions included the annexation of Texas, thesurrender of California and other southwestern states by Mexico, andsettlement of the Oregon border with Great Britain. "The Thankless Task of Nicholas Trist." American Heritage (Aug. As a legislative leader, Polk wassuccessful in his cooperation with Congress which led to the passage ofnumerous important foreign and domestic bills. Also, many Democrats refused to forgive Polk whenhe switched from the party platform of "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight" on theOregon issue to one in which he sought a quick and easy compromise withGreat Britain. Thus, Polk failed to stand by an administrative staffmember who had accomplished for him the territorial gains that he haddesired. In measuring Polk's overall effectiveness as a presidential leader,it may be noted that the President accomplished a great deal during histerm in office. When a small clashoccurred on the border in which an American life was lost, Polk took thatevent as his opportunity to declare war once and for all on Mexico. Furthermore, Polk succeeded in making the territorial gains thathe had set out to achieve when he first entered the war. In evaluating Polk's overall performance as presidential leader orhead of state, it can be seen that he was effective in accomplishing hisstated goals; however he was somewhat ineffective in terms of partyleadership and in maintaining his popularity with the public.Nevertheless, an overall assessment must see Polk as being a successfulpresident simply because he was a product of his time. However, this is notnecessarily something to condemn Polk for, since he was after all onlyhuman. While many Americans had originallysought war with Britain over the disputed territory, by the time of Polk'selection, those same people were beginning to feel that their "extremeclaim" for the 54th parallel was not actually worth fighting for (Schuyler447). In Bergeron's words, "denied the gift ofpersonal popularity, Polk nonetheless achieved remarkable things in spiteof this unfortunate deprivation" (26 ). There were anumber of ways in which Polk failed to adequately lead his party. The appointments that Polk did make upon his election to the presidencydid very little to maintain the unity of the Democratic Party as a whole.For example, many Democrats opposed Polk's appointments of James Buchananto the State Department and Robert J. Works CitedBergeron, Paul H. On the one hand, Polk was able to gain acertain level of public support through his expansionist policies, hisreduction of the tariff, and his establishment of national banking reforms. After graduating from the University ofNorth Carolina, Polk became a respected lawyer in the state of Tennessee.By age thirty, Polk had become a member of the House of Representatives,and ten years later he was elected Speaker of the House. Nevertheless, Polk'spresidential career was also marked with controversy in his leadership ofthe executive branch. Both of these efforts helped to strengthen thegeneral economic situation in the United States at the time. During his term of office, James K. 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