INDONESIAN RELIGIONS.   Term Paper ID:16467 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Major religious forms, emphasizing Islam groups, and their interactions. Cultural aspects, traditions, practices, beliefs, Christianity, politics.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Major religious forms, emphasizing Islam groups, and their interactions. Cultural aspects, traditions, practices, beliefs, Christianity, politics. Paper Introduction: INDONESIAN RELIGIOUS FORMS AND THEIR INTERACTIONS Indonesia is an archipelago nation 3,500 miles long by 1,000 miles wide (Koentjaraningrat). It ranks fifth in the world in population, with 150 million people as of 1985 (Denny 370). More than half of these live on Java, the capital island. The nation is made up of people of many ethnic groups that speak at least 250 mutually unintelligible languages, though most are related. Bahasa Indonesia ("the language of Indonesia") is used as the national language (Johns 202). The archipelago has an ancient civilization that has been affected by many foreign peoples, including Indians, Arabs, Chinese, Portuguese and Dutch (Geertz 7). At the beginning of the 20th century, the islands making up modern Indonesia were the Dutch East Indies. Dutch colonial rule was ended by the Japanese Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. (Eds.) Islam in Asia, vol. Major normativeProtestant and Catholic groups seem to be predominant in Indonesia, thoughmany radical sects are present which are associated with Christianity byMuslims (Boland 233). Their success has been rather limited so far. Therefore, they are unlikely tocome into conflict with other religious interests unless another interestis trying to coerce change in them. They seem to bethe best way to distinguish among forms of Islam in Indonesia. The archipelago has an ancient civilization that has been affected bymany foreign peoples, including Indians, Arabs, Chinese, Portuguese andDutch (Geertz 7). The slametan is a communal feast meant to pacify thespirits, which to the abangan are the personification of unforeseen mishap(14). Both Protestant and Catholic groups are evangelicalin nature (Boland 235ff) which is predictable given that they are a smallminority that is actively growing. One who is calm within himself or herself will be less apt tobe disturbed in the event of a problem. fairly indifferent to doctrine but fascinated with ritual detail .. made up primarily of the ritual feast calledthe slametan, of an extensive and intricate complex of spirit beliefs, andof a whole set of theories and practices of curing, sorcery, and magic . Boland alsoclaims that Muslims object to the idea of a priyayi variant of Javanesereligion. These political groups were a major power by the time the newconstitution was being developed. . This movement was eventuallydefeated, but associated Islamic rebellions continued periodically forseveral years. . Independence from the Dutch was realized in1949, and parliamentary government was established to govern the country(Denny 37 ). (1963). The abangan religious subtradition, which includes the majority ofIndonesians, emphasizes animistic aspects of the overall syncretism.Geertz describes it as " . More than half of these live onJava, the capital island. Boland also refers to conspicuous Christian activities and church-buildingin primarily Muslim districts as offensive to Muslims (23 -1). Bahasa Indonesia ("the language of Indonesia") is usedas the national language (Johns 2 2). J. 12. . As aresult, Christians gained respect as true Indonesians rather than beingassociated with the Dutch colonialists (Boland 224). . INDONESIAN RELIGIOUS FORMS AND THEIR INTERACTIONS Indonesia is an archipelago nation 3,5 miles long by 1, mileswide (Koentjaraningrat). The constitution establishing the government included a statephilosophy called the antjasila (Five Principles), the first of which isbelief in the one Supreme God (Johns 2 3). Each subtradition is seen as emphasizing a different aspectof an overall Javanese syncretism. Glencoe, IL: The Free P, 196 .Hooker, M. The santri Indonesian subtradition is a purer, orthodox Islam. Waardenburg cites foursubjects of sharply different legal interpretation between Christians andMuslims, such as proper fulfillment of the monotheistic philosophy of thePantjasila, Christian rights to missionary activity, and rules regulatingreligious education in public and private schools (Israeli and Johns 41-4). The Struggle of Islam in Modern Indonesia. Two of the main areas of conflict have been related to theactions of reformist groups motivated by santri-related ideology and to theChristian "call to mission." Problems relating to reformist motivations and resistance theretoarose primarily between the reformist groups and the government. There are surely many other examples of problems in these areas, andprobably there are also many examples of impacts of religion in completelydifferent areas. B. The final result - a monotheistic constitution - resulted in " . . It can seldom be characterized alongthe lines of Muslim practice generally accepted and propounded elsewhere inthe world. These examples indicate that the forms of religion present inIndonesia have extensive effects on the politics and people of the country. Singapore:Singapore UP, 1978.Noer, D. Prijaji focus on etiquette andmystical practice in their religious life. An Introduction to Islam. Mystical practice canresult in an internal barrier: the intentional attempt to calm one'sfeelings, which are viewed as alternating between happiness andunhappiness. Fortunately, conflict over the doctrinally necessary Christiandefense of its evangelical dogma has been less violent. .the fundamental basis for human action in all of its aspects" in contrastto the abangans and prijajis for whom religion is only one part of life(Geertz 152). However, in contrast to the abangans,the santris are primarily concerned with doctrinal aspects of theirreligion. . The Religion of Java. M. Thus,emotional steadiness denotes refinement of feeling and understanding(Geertz 24 -2). " (127), which is perhaps indicated by the application of therelatively precise ritual feast to various ends that are sometimesambiguous. The Prijaji religious subtradition, as described by Geertz, tends tolean toward Hindu-Buddhist pantheism (234). (Ed.). The rituals, though important and distinctive, are already welldefined, and require little thought. . Islam in Southern Asia: A Survey of Current Research. Cummings Publishing Company, 1975.Mulder, N. However, it may beuseful in condensing the terms and questions needed to understandIndonesian religion at some level, and perhaps also in raising questionsabout religion in the country. J. Violence associated with the 1965 massacres of Communists was alsoassociated with reformation-mindedness. The makeup of Indonesian Christians is roughly two-thirdsProtestant and one-third Catholic (Kipp and Rogers 3). Both are also similar to the santris inthat both have a totalistic view of their own religious doctrine. Each householdis represented by its head. illness, sorcery, and so forth (3 ).The application of the same community feast to both Islamic and Animistends is a good demonstration of the syncretic nature of the abanganreligious view. This was upsetting to the santris, who wanted to seeabangans come to follow orthodox Islam. Thethree cultural types correspond to three different Islamic religioussubtraditions. H. In Islam in Asia: Religion, Politics and Society. Many Christians fought together with Muslims against the Dutch. At the beginning of the 2 th century, the islands makingup modern Indonesia were the Dutch East Indies. The feast itself is attended only by men: the host, and all the menliving in his household's immediate vicinity (Geertz 12). New Haven: Yale UP, 1968.Geertz, C. Groups such as the abangans and the prijajis that consider theirreligious views only one (non-supreme) aspect of their life do not havemuch need to defend religious interests. Religion and Politics in Rural Central Java, Cultural Report Series no. Esposito, ed. Indonesia has had two long-ruling presidents: Sukarno and Suharto, whose presidencies were split by aMuslim-led anti-communist massacre in 1965 (Denny 371). Despite the abundance of Muslims in Indonesia, their presence andimpact have apparently been neglected by all but a few scholars andoverlooked by Westerners in general. many of the santriwanted to impose religious law legally on all Muslim Indonesians" (Israeliand Johns 42). The outer barrier is etiquette, which conceals the innerfeelings from exposure to the outside world, and normalizes behavior so asto prevent disturbing surprises (Geertz 241-2). The categories have been widely accepted and used by scholars insubsequent studies on Indonesia, with slight variations. " (5). Martinus Nijhoff, 1971.Denny, F. E. According toGeertz, the abangans are" . . . About 9 percent of Indonesian nationals claim to be Muslim (Denny37 ) making Indonesia the country with the most Muslims in the world, over13 million (Johns 2 2). Several politicalparties have been operative, seeking to increase the influence of Islam inthe state. This conflict hasbeen primarily between Christians and santri type Muslims. Islam in South-East Asia. This represents typical abangan socialorganization, in which the household is the basic unit (128). New Haven: Yale U Southeast Asia Studies, 1963.Johns, A. However, the opposing interestsof the two groups make tension almost inevitable. M. . Art is also valued. Theyregularly take part in the fundamental prescribed rituals of Islam (Geertz6). Dutch colonial rule wasended by the Japanese occupation of the region during World War II.Following World War II Indonesian independence was declared by thenationalist leader Sukarno. Islam Observed, Religious Development in Morocco and Indonesia. Geertz chooses to distinguish among the three groups on the basis ofreligious beliefs, ethical preferences, and political ideologies (4). Most scholars seem to compromise, and use the term priyayi as asociological rather than religious reference. In theearly 2 th century, some orthodox Muslims began to aggregate into politicalgroups. Forms of Christianity are less unique in Indonesia than the forms ofIslam. However, it seems commonly accepted that thefoundational Islam that came to Indonesia was Sufi in orientation (Denny371), and mysticism still seems to play a major role in the religious lifeof Indonesia. S., and Rodgers, S. It ranks fifth in the world in population, with15 million people as of 1985 (Denny 37 ). Administration of Islam in Indonesia. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1987.Kipp, R. . For instance, this writer found no report that ventures toclassify Indonesian Islam as predominantly Sunni or Shi'i. This recognition ofthe Christians as a valid part of Indonesia has probably very much limitedconflict between Christians and Muslims. . The foremost problem in developing theideology of the constitution was to resolve the role of Islam in the state. These tensions led to anti-Christian sentiment among Muslims, and eventually to occasional violence,despite governmental attempts at mediation (Israeli and Johns 44). R. Franz Steiner Verlaq, 1975.----------------------- 11 Islam in Indonesia is unique. Groups that view their own religiousdoctrine in a totalistic way, such as the santris and Christians, are moreliable to end up in conflict with other religious interests, since there isa strong need to maintain the integrity of their doctrine. Introduction to the Peoples and Cultures of Indonesia and Malaysia. The only other major religion is Christianity,which has about 8.5 percent of Indonesians as adherents (Kipp and Rodgers3). . In The Religion of Java, Geertz (6) describes three "main culturaltypes" in Javanese culture, the abangan, santri, and prijaji, which heclaims are divisions and terminology which are popularly recognized by theJavanese. The governmentis also likely to be involved in conflicts, as it necessarily must eithermaintain its authority if challenged or lose its function. L. Violent Islamic extremism has continued through this day(Johns 227). Thesantris emphasize "unreserved belief and faith in the absolute truth ofIslam" and oppose what they see as being non-orthodox (Geertz 127). According to Geertz, Slametans fall into four main types: (1) those centering around the crises of life--birth, circumcision, marriage, and death; (2) those associated with the Moslem ceremonial calendar . Ithaca, NY: CornellModern Indonesia Project, 1978.Rotherman, D. (Eds.) Indonesian Religions in Transition.Tucson: U of Arizona P, 1987.Koentjaraningrat, R. J. In a sense, Santris are the most religiousgroup of Muslims in Indonesia, for they view Islamic doctrine to be " . Acceptance of Geertz' categories of abangan, santri, and prijaji iswidespread, and has been roughly extended to Indonesia in general.However, some scholars have criticized or modified the categories.According to Boland, Muslims prefer to distinguish between a santri and anabangan by describing whether one is a consciously faithful adherent toIslam or not, rather than by the terms that Geertz claims. Indonesia: Islam and cultural pluralism. However, thebasic opposition of some Islamic parties to the constitution of the countryhas been a significant cause of political tension (Johns 213ff). II: Southeastand East Asia. .a disillusionment [among some Muslims] that was within three years to leadto the outbreak of civil war and the proclamation of a Dar al-Islam (domainof Islam) in three provinces" (Johns 211). As would bepredicted from these generalizations, the santris and the IndonesianChristians have been the religious groups most involved in tensions withthe government, each other, and sometimes with other religious forms inrecent years. This report will survey thepredominant religious forms, focusing primarily on forms of Islam, and thendiscuss some of the interactions between the religious groups. New York: Macmillan, 1985.Geertz, C. According to him, Indonesians feel that the priyayi class shouldbe judged on the distinction meant by the terms santri and abangan (Boland4). . Inthat case Sunni versus Shi'i distinctions would not be as meaningful formost Indonesian Muslims. Performance of the five prescribed daily prayers is taken to be themark that distinguishes a santri. Westview P, 1984.Jay, R. H. . ; (3) that concerned with the social integration of the village . The nation is made up of people of many ethnicgroups that speak at least 25 mutually unintelligible languages, thoughmost are related. The objective of these defenses isto allow the prijaji to achieve "emotional quiescence." Quiescence makespossible the direct comprehension of a unity of feeling and meaning. Instead of meditating on ritualpractice, many santris pursue apologetics (Geertz 127). Santris alsodiffer from Abangans in social organization. Mysticism and Everyday Life in Contemporary Java. The Santris have a strongsense of both the local and the wider, international Islamic communityregulated by an objective system of law that takes priority over thehousehold unit (Geertz 128-9). ; and (4) those intermittent slametans held at irregular intervals and depending upon unusual occurrences - departing for a long trip, . . Ingeneral, it seems that the prijaji seeks to secure himself from disturbanceby the outside world by making both an inner and an outer barrier againstdisturbance. Perhaps this isdue to the prevalence of syncretization of pre-Islamic beliefs with Islamamong Indonesians: many Indonesians disregard basic practices andprohibitions that both Sunni and Shi'i Muslims accept (Geertz 124). Thesetensions were compounded by the events of 1965, when many abangans and non-Muslims converted to Christianity, to escape persecution, it is thought(Boland 232). Brill, 1983.Israeli, R., and Johns, A. Works CitedBoland, B. . The survey is far from exhaustive. During the massacres, some santriswere involved in persecuting many Abangan syncretist Muslims (Denny 371).The persecution was perhaps predictable, since " . Many others of the Muslims seeking an Islamic state tried to workwith the new constitution in seeking their objectives. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.